Neuroplasticity and Development
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of androgens and estrogens?

  • To exert effects on sexual development and behavior (correct)
  • To synthesize cholesterol
  • To stimulate extensive physical activity
  • To regulate body temperature

    • How do steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, exert their effects?

  • Only through activating genes in the nucleus
  • Only through binding to membrane receptors
  • Through a process of mitosis and meiosis
  • Through a combination of binding to membrane receptors, entering cells, and binding to receptors that bind to chromosomes (correct)

    • What is the genetic condition characterized by only one X chromosome?

  • XY syndrome
  • Klinefelter syndrome
  • XYY syndrome
  • Turner syndrome (correct)

    • At what point in pregnancy does the sex of a fetus get determined?

    <p>At 8 weeks of pregnancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of estradiol in the development of genitalia?

    <p>To develop female genitalia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of effects do hormones have on the development of genitalia and secondary sex characteristics?

    <p>Organizing effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the amacrine cells in the retina?

    <p>To modulate the activation of ganglion cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reason for the high sensitivity to dim light in the periphery of the retina?

    <p>The summation of inputs from multiple rods and cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the fovea in the retina?

    <p>To see details and colors in good light conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of bipolar cells in the fovea?

    <p>They receive input from only one cone and transmit it to only one ganglion cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the optic disc in the eye?

    <p>To provide a blind spot in the visual field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between cones and rods in the retina?

    <p>Cones are responsible for seeing in detail and color, while rods are responsible for seeing in dim light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of vision in humans?

    <p>To localize and identify predators, food, and partners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the cortex reorganizing itself after an amputation?

    <p>The cortex becomes responsive to other parts of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the way humans process visual information and computer-vision algorithms?

    <p>The human brain outperforms computer-vision algorithms in terms of computational power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method of studying vision in electrophysiology?

    <p>Inserting an electrode into a single cell in an animal brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of neurogenesis in the hippocampus and basal ganglia?

    <p>The formation of new neurons in regions related to memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the law of specific nerve energies?

    <p>The brain interprets action potentials from different nerves as different sensations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the olfactory bulb?

    <p>To process olfactory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of light that allows us to perceive objects?

    <p>Light can be both absorbed and reflected by objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Broca's aphasia?

    <p>Production of speech is disrupted but has meaning behind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which percentage of right-handed people is the left hemisphere dominant for language production and comprehension?

    <p>95%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain area is associated with top-down attention?

    <p>Prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the planum temporale in the brain?

    <p>Auditory processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the surgery that involves cutting the corpus callosum to prevent seizures from spreading to other hemisphere?

    <p>Split-brain surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of tolerance in drug abuse?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the mesolimbic pathway in relation to drug abuse?

    <p>Implicated in reward and motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the right temporal lobe is removed?

    <p>Resistance to information that disconfirms belief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Wernicke's aphasia?

    <p>Production of speech is intact but there is no meaning behind it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the right hemisphere in terms of emotions?

    <p>Dominant for recognizing emotions in language and facial expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Similar lateralization of function has been observed in which species?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for depression?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary neurotransmitter implicated in schizophrenia?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the removal of one hemisphere, often performed in cases of severe epilepsy?

    <p>Hemispherectomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which animals has left-hemisphere dominance for vocalization been shown?

    <p>Mice and frogs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of spatial neglect?

    <p>Ignoring the left side of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of long-term drug abuse on the brain?

    <p>Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary genetic component of depression?

    <p>Short version of the serotonin transporter gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Neuroplasticity and Development

    • We are born with most of our neurons, but neurogenesis continues in regions related to memory, such as the basal ganglia and hippocampus.
    • New olfactory receptors and neurons are formed in the factory bulb.
    • Plasticity allows for new connections to be made based on new experiences, and axons and dendrites continue to modify their structure and connections throughout a lifetime.
    • The phantom limb effect occurs when the cortex reorganizes itself after amputation, becoming responsive to other parts of the body.

    Senses and Nerve Energies

    • The senses are categorized into:
      • Olfaction (smell) → olfactory bulb (frontal lobe)
      • Audition (sound) → auditory (temporal lobe)
      • Vision → visual (occipital)
      • Somesthesis → motor + somesthetic (parietal)
    • The law of specific nerve energies states that the brain interprets action potentials from different nerves as specific sensations (e.g., sound or vision).

    Vision

    • Functions of vision:
      • Localize and identify predators, food, and partners
      • Evolutionary adaptations varied depending on species needs
    • Human vision:
      • Guided by vision (2/3 of brain processing visual input)
      • Computational power: human brain outperforms computer-vision algorithms
    • Electrophysiology:
      • Method of studying vision by inserting electrodes into single cells in the animal brain to record action potentials.

    The Eye and Retina

    • Anatomy of the eye:
      • Iris (colored area)
      • Pupil
      • Cornea
      • Lens
      • Retina
      • Optic nerve
      • Fovea
    • Retina structure:
      • Layers: amacrine cells, ganglion cells, bipolar cells, receptors
      • Function: transduction of light into action potentials
    • Optic disc (blind spot) = place where optic nerve leaves the eye
    • Fovea:
      • Responsible for seeing detail (e.g., reading)
      • We see more detail and color when fixating on an object
      • Each bipolar cell receives input from only one cone, transmitting to one ganglion cell
    • Periphery:
      • Each bipolar cell receives input from many rods (and cones), resulting in high sensitivity to dim light and low visual acuity (summation)

    Hormones and Sexual Development

    • Hormones:
      • Androgens (more abundant in males, e.g., testosterone)
      • Estrogens (more abundant in females, e.g., estradiol, progesterone)
      • Steroids exert effects in three ways:
        • Bind to membrane receptors
        • Enter cells and activate proteins in the cytoplasm
        • Bind to receptors that bind to chromosomes and activate or inactivate genes
    • Sexual development:
      • Determined by sex chromosomes
      • Sex chromosomes not always XX or XY (e.g., Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, XYY)
      • Development of genitalia:
        • Males and females start with undifferentiated genitalia
        • 8 weeks of pregnancy: sex is determined by introducing SRY (sex-determining region of Y chromosome) → protein (testis-determining factor) → development of testis
        • Ovaries produce estradiol, leading to development of female genitalia

    Reproductive Behaviors and Lateralization

    • Effects of hormones:
      • Organizing effects: produce long-lasting structural changes (e.g., development of genitalia, secondary sex characteristics)
      • Activating effects: produce temporary changes (e.g., language)
    • Lateralization of function:
      • Left hemisphere: holds a stable view of the world, registers changes or abnormalities
      • Right hemisphere: dominant for viso-spatial functions, recognizing emotions, and updating beliefs
      • Evolution of lateralization:
        • Similarities in paw preferences in mice, rats, cats, and dogs
        • Chimpanzees show similar structural asymmetries in their brain as humans
        • Songbirds' song production skills mediated by left hemisphere

    Consciousness and Psychological Disorders

    • Consciousness:
      • Mind-body problem (monism vs. dualism)
      • Studying consciousness: change blindness, attentional blink, backward masking, etc.
    • Spatial neglect:
      • Damage to the right hemisphere → syndrome where people ignore their left side of the body and left visual field
      • Most patients recover within 10-20 weeks
    • Substance abuse:
      • From neurotransmitters to reinforcement to tolerance to withdrawal and craving
      • Most commonly abused drugs are derived from plants
      • Drugs can act as both agonists and antagonists
      • Reinforcement: taking drugs is associated with release of dopamine
      • Tolerance: mechanisms of neural adaptation and tolerance
      • Withdrawal: when the brain anticipates drugs and applies countermeasures, but the drug is not taken
    • Major Depressive Disorder:
      • Symptoms and diagnosis
      • Prevalence: 16.2% of Americans suffer depression at some point
      • Genetics: 33% heritability, genes associated with depression also play a role in other disorders
      • Risk factors: family history, early childhood experiences, stress, alcohol use, and more
    • Schizophrenia:
      • Symptoms: positive (psychotic, disorganization), negative (depression-like, weak social interaction, lack of emotional expression)
      • Genetics: 1% of population, 50% concordance rate in MZ, suggests genetic component
      • Biology: neurodevelopmental hypothesis, dopamine hypothesis, glutamate hypothesis

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    Description

    Explore the dynamic process of neuroplasticity and its role in shaping brain development. Learn how new neurons and connections are formed, and how the brain adapts to new experiences.

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