Nervous System Overview Quiz

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following terms refers to the creases between the folds in the cortex?

  • Commissures
  • Gyri
  • Fissures
  • Sulci (correct)

Which lobe of the brain is responsible for processing visual information?

  • Occipital lobe (correct)
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Frontal lobe

Which of the following is NOT a function of the brainstem?

  • Controlling movement
  • Regulating eating and drinking
  • Processing sensory information
  • Mediating higher-level cognitive functions (correct)

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for connecting the central nervous system (CNS) to the _____.

<p>Both internal organs and the external world (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is responsible for sensing and responding to the body's internal organs?

<p>Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about the regeneration of nerve tissue?

<p>The PNS can regenerate lost tissue, but the CNS cannot (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The sensory division of the somatic nervous system collects information from the five major senses. Which of the following is NOT one of the five major senses?

<p>Gravity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the function of the motor division of the somatic nervous system?

<p>Controlling and coordinating movements of the body (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a part of the brain's three-part structure?

<p>Midbrain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The large sulcus that divides the two hemispheres of the brain is called the _____.

<p>Longitudinal fissure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a major pathway connecting the two hemispheres of the brain?

<p>Corpus callosum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following lobes is located at the front of the brain?

<p>Frontal lobe (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures is responsible for conveying sensory information to the brain and sending commands from the brain to the muscles?

<p>Spinal cord (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the evolutionary sequence of brain development, from simplest to most complex?

<p>Spinal cord, brainstem, forebrain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following BEST describes the term "neo" in the context of the neocortex?

<p>Newest (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the corpus callosum?

<p>Connecting the two hemispheres of the brain (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea of the theory of neuroplasticity?

<p>The brain can physically and chemically change to adapt to the environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of how neuroplasticity can help the brain recover from injury?

<p>A person who suffers a stroke can regain some lost abilities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the contemporary perspective on brain theory view the relationship between science and belief systems?

<p>Science is a set of procedures for testing hypotheses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of discussing the case of L.D., the golfer and cook who recovered from a coma?

<p>To support the theory of neuroplasticity and the brain's ability to recover. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of Gall and Spurzheim’s theory of localization of function?

<p>The localization of specific mental faculties to different parts of the brain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Gall’s initial observation that led to his theory of localization of function?

<p>People with large, protruding eyes had good memories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Gall and Spurzheim propose was the relationship between bumps and depressions on the skull and mental abilities?

<p>Bumps indicated a well-developed area of the brain, while depressions indicated an underdeveloped area. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Gall and Spurzheim call their method of studying the relationship between skull surface features and mental faculties?

<p>Phrenology (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary tool used in cranioscopy, which was based on Gall and Spurzheim’s theory?

<p>A device to measure bumps and depressions on the skull (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a faculty identified by Gall and Spurzheim in their phrenological map?

<p>Intelligence quotient (IQ) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the connection between the two hemispheres of the brain?

<p>Corpus callosum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is an example of the “most distinctive motor pathway” mentioned in the text?

<p>The corticospinal tract (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why most people with brain damage experience some loss of function?

<p>Because the brain is highly interconnected and damage affects multiple functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the pineal body in brain function, according to the information provided?

<p>The text doesn't provide enough information to answer this question. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about the brain’s capabilities, as mentioned in the text?

<p>Only 10% of the brain is used. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary message conveyed in the text about the role of brain injury in our understanding of brain function?

<p>Brain injury can be a source of scientific insight into the functions of different brain regions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary impact of advancements in local anesthetics on neurosurgery?

<p>It enabled patients to remain awake during surgery. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the use of stereotaxic devices contribute to the advancement of neurosurgery?

<p>They enabled surgeons to perform surgery with greater precision. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What technique did neurosurgeons use to determine the exact extent of brain damage?

<p>Electrical stimulation of surrounding tissue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary outcome of correlating focal brain lesions with behavioral changes?

<p>Improved understanding of the relationship between brain structure and function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'focal lesion' refer to in the context of neurosurgery?

<p>A small, localized area of brain damage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concept challenged by the work of Flourens and Goltz?

<p>The idea that brain functions are localized (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding of Flourens' experiments with pigeons?

<p>Pigeons recovered from their initial impairments, suggesting distributed function. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant observation was made in Goltz's experiments with dogs?

<p>Dogs with extensive brain damage were able to recover some basic functions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of the cases discussed in the Snapshot?

<p>The presence of minimal movement does not necessarily indicate consciousness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Terri Schiavo's case?

<p>It highlights the complexity of determining consciousness based on observable behaviors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary outcome of the deep brain stimulation treatment applied to the 38-year-old man in the Snapshot?

<p>He experienced a significant improvement in his conscious awareness and ability to perform basic tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Adrian Owen's research employing MRI contribute to our understanding of consciousness?

<p>It suggests a potential method for detecting consciousness in unresponsive patients. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'disconnection' in neuropsychology primarily refer to?

<p>The disruption of communication pathways between brain regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of the finding that many brain functions are distributed?

<p>Brain damage can lead to recovery of function through the involvement of other brain regions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key difference between disconnection theory and the concept of distributed function?

<p>Disconnection theory focuses on communication pathways, while distributed function emphasizes the roles of multiple brain regions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key similarity between disconnection theory and the concept of distributed function?

<p>Both theories emphasize the importance of communication pathways in the brain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 'channel concept of behavior' in the context of the content?

<p>It suggests a sequential and interconnected flow of information across different brain regions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of the findings presented in the content, regarding the brain's ability to recover after damage?

<p>The brain's plasticity allows for some degree of recovery, depending on the extent of the damage. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the content, what is a key challenge in understanding consciousness?

<p>Distinguishing between conscious and unconscious behavior can be complex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of the 'connectome' in the context of disconnection theory?

<p>It provides a comprehensive map of the brain's communication pathways. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What technique did Santiago Ramón y Cajal use to study the brains of chicks?

<p>Golgi's silverstaining technique (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Golgi, what is the structure of the nervous system?

<p>A network of interconnected neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Cajal propose about the structure of the nervous system?

<p>Neurons are autonomous and not connected (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports both Golgi's and Cajal's hypotheses about the nervous system?

<p>Images produced by electron microscopes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a perineuronal net?

<p>A membrane that encapsulates groups of neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT true about Cajal's neuron theory?

<p>It is fully supported by electron microscopy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of glial cells?

<p>Provide support functions such as delivering nutrients and removing waste (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Luigi Galvani's main finding?

<p>Electrical stimulation of a frog's nerve causes muscle contractions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Fritsch and Hitzig demonstrate in their experiments?

<p>The brain can be electrically stimulated to produce movement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between dendrites and axons?

<p>Axons send signals while dendrites receive signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Fritsch and Hitzig's experiments show about different parts of the cortex?

<p>Different parts of the cortex control different functions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the neuron theory in neuropsychology?

<p>It identified the basic unit of brain structure and function as the nerve cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What technique did Camillo Golgi use to visualize neurons in their entirety?

<p>Staining with silver nitrate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Bartholow's experiment with Mary Rafferty demonstrate?

<p>Electrical stimulation can be used on humans to produce subjective sensations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the neuron theory differ from the brain theory?

<p>The neuron theory explains the basic unit of brain function, while the brain theory emphasizes the role of the brain as a whole (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

<p>A technique used to stimulate the brain using magnetic fields (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Cajal's work?

<p>It established the foundation for contemporary brain research (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a part of the three aspects of the neuron theory outlined in the text?

<p>Neurons are responsible for processing information and producing behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Galvani's observation of twitching frog legs during an electrical storm influence his work?

<p>It inspired him to investigate the relationship between electricity and muscle contraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why are the axons of neurons in the motor pathway from the cortex to the spinal cord significantly long?

<p>To allow for fast signal transmission over long distances (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the fact that the human nervous system contains roughly equal numbers of neurons and glial cells?

<p>It suggests that glial cells are equally important as neurons in brain function (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How were Fritsch and Hitzig's experiments related to the work of Galvani?

<p>They built upon Galvani's findings to investigate electrical stimulation of the brain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why was the discovery of conscious and unconscious vision considered a paradox in neuropsychology?

<p>It implied that the brain is capable of both conscious and unconscious activity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Hitzig observe while dressing a soldier's head wound during the Prussian war?

<p>Mechanical irritation of the brain caused twitching in the opposite side of the body (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Bartholow's experiment differ from the experiments of Fritsch and Hitzig?

<p>Bartholow's experiment used a human subject, while Fritsch and Hitzig used animals (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best description of the 'Big-Brain' project?

<p>A three-dimensional atlas of the human brain with high resolution (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why were early theorists, like Descartes, mistaken in their belief that nerves were hollow tubes containing fluid?

<p>They lacked the technology to adequately examine nervous system structure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason why Bartholow's experiment caused a public outcry?

<p>It involved the use of a human subject (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text states that the neuron theory is one of the major sources of findings that influence modern neuropsychology. What is the other major source?

<p>The brain theory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of neurons?

<p>To produce behavior and mediate the brain's plasticity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text mentions L.D., an individual who suffered a traumatic brain injury. What is the purpose of mentioning L.D. in the passage?

<p>To illustrate the connection between brain injury and specific behavioral deficits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main point of the passage?

<p>To introduce two key theories that shape modern neuropsychology (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'staining' in the study of the nervous system?

<p>It allowed scientists to visualize neurons in their entirety (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Descartes, what is the key difference between humans and animals?

<p>Humans are capable of rational thought and consciousness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a consequence of Descartes's dualistic theory?

<p>The idea that mental illness is solely a result of physical brain dysfunction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the theory of materialism?

<p>The physical brain is the only source of all human behavior, including thought and emotion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the theory of common ancestry in Darwin’s view?

<p>The similarities in skeletal structures, muscles, and nervous systems across various species. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the theory of natural selection?

<p>Understanding how species evolve and change over time. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two key factors that Mendel’s work identified as influencing traits in organisms?

<p>Heritable factors and environmental influences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of a species according to Darwin?

<p>A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between genes and phenotype?

<p>Genes provide the blueprint for traits, and the environment can modify how these traits are expressed. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of epigenetics in understanding behaviour?

<p>Epigenetics reveals how environmental factors can alter gene expression, influencing behaviour. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Descartes's theory influence the treatment of animals?

<p>His theory provided justification for treating animals as machines lacking consciousness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between the views of Descartes and Darwin on the human mind?

<p>Descartes believed the mind was separate from the body, while Darwin believed the mind emerged from the brain. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Darwin’s work in the context of understanding human behaviour?

<p>Darwin provided a foundation for understanding human behaviour as a product of evolution. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Darwin’s and Wallace’s contributions to evolutionary theory?

<p>There was no significant difference between their contributions. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of genetics in natural selection?

<p>Genetics dictates the survival and reproduction of individuals within a species. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Pierre Marie observe when he reexamined the brains of Broca's patients?

<p>He found evidence of widespread damage in Tan's brain, including the posterior cortex. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wernicke noticed that patients with damage to the auditory cortex exhibited a specific speech pattern. What was this pattern?

<p>Ability to speak fluently, but with nonsensical content. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the arcuate fasciculus?

<p>Connecting Wernicke's area to Broca's area, facilitating the flow of auditory information for speech production. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Broca's view on language localization differ from Wernicke's?

<p>Broca believed that language was localized to a single area, whereas Wernicke proposed a distributed network across multiple regions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these conditions would result from damage to the arcuate fasciculus, according to Wernicke's model?

<p>Conduction aphasia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia, in terms of language function?

<p>Broca's aphasia affects speech production, while Wernicke's aphasia affects language comprehension. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Wernicke believe about the dominance of the brain hemispheres for language?

<p>He believed that the left hemisphere was dominant for language in humans. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a characteristic of Wernicke's aphasia?

<p>Paralysis of the right arm and leg. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Pierre Marie's criticism of Broca's findings?

<p>It challenged the idea of a single, localized language center in the brain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who was the first to propose that neurons are separated by junctions, and the message takes extra time to cross these junctions?

<p>Charles Scott Sherrington (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Dejerine's work contribute to the understanding of language disorders?

<p>He linked alexia to a disconnection between the visual and language areas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key idea behind the Wernicke-Geschwind model?

<p>Language processing involves a complex network of interconnected brain regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Otto Loewi's experiment with frog hearts demonstrate about the nature of communication between neurons?

<p>Neurons release chemicals that influence the activity of other neurons and muscles. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Liepmann's research?

<p>He linked apraxia to a disconnection between motor and sensory areas. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the process of strengthening or creating new synapses between neurons, which is the basis for learning and memory according to Hebb's theory?

<p>Synaptic plasticity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary similarity between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia?

<p>Both demonstrate the importance of interconnected brain regions for language processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hebb's theory of consciousness, what is the basis for representing an idea or unit of behavior?

<p>A group of neurons connected by synapses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a field that has contributed to the development of neuropsychology?

<p>Astrophysics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the 1874 model and the Wernicke-Geschwind model?

<p>The 1874 model focused on a single language processing center, while the Wernicke-Geschwind model recognizes a distributed network of interconnected regions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the discovery of antisepsis, anesthesia, and functional localization in the history of neurosurgery?

<p>They marked the beginning of the modern era in neurosurgery. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary implication of Wernicke's model for understanding brain function?

<p>Brain functions are distributed across a network of interconnected areas. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these best describes the role of the arcuate fasciculus in language processing?

<p>It connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area, enabling the flow of auditory information for speech production. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the procedure involving cutting a circular hole in the skull, mentioned in the text as a historic neurosurgical practice?

<p>Trephination (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea of the passage regarding the brain's plasticity?

<p>The brain is constantly changing and adapting as we learn and experience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the "5 milliseconds too long" response time observed by Sherrington in his experiment with a dog?

<p>It suggested the presence of a junction between neurons, called a synapse. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a part of Hebb's theory of consciousness?

<p>Consciousness is a purely electrical phenomenon. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of a stereotaxic device in neurosurgery?

<p>To hold the head in a fixed position during surgery (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the early Incas of Peru and early civilizations in Europe demonstrate regarding neurosurgery?

<p>They recognized the potential of surgery to relieve cranial pressure. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the "Soups" and the "Sparks" theories of how neurons communicate?

<p>The &quot;Soups&quot; theory focuses on chemical signals, while the &quot;Sparks&quot; theory focuses on electrical impulses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of the plasticity of the brain?

<p>A child learning a new language and acquiring new skills. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary contribution of psychometrics to neuropsychology?

<p>Developing tools to measure human mental abilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information presented, what conclusion can be drawn about the nature of consciousness according to Hebb's theory?

<p>Consciousness is a product of the interconnectedness of neurons and their interactions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best description of the brain's basic structure?

<p>A folded tube filled with cerebrospinal fluid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cerebrospinal fluid?

<p>To cushion the brain and remove metabolic waste (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the outer, crinkled tissue of the brain that is visible in Figure 1.1A?

<p>Cerebral cortex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the brain's bilateral symmetry?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a major lobe of the brain?

<p>Pituitary (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cerebral lobes?

<p>To process sensory information and execute motor commands (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it helpful to understand the names of different brain parts?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Given that the brain's basic plan is a tube of tissue, what can we infer about its evolutionary development?

<p>The brain evolved from a simpler, tube-like structure found in early organisms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately reflects Aristotle's mentalist theory?

<p>The heart is the seat of the psyche, which is independent of the body and influences behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these accurately describes Descartes' Dualism theory?

<p>Behavior is a result of the interplay between the mind and body, which are separate entities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between Aristotle's mentalism and Descartes' dualism?

<p>Aristotle believed the mind was nonmaterial and controlled behavior, while Descartes believed the body was a machine controlled by the mind. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the modern, scientifically accepted view regarding the relationship between the brain and behavior?

<p>Materialism – behavior is a consequence of the physical brain. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What analogy did Descartes use to explain his view of the body's mechanism?

<p>A water-powered statue. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ANS (Autonomic Nervous System) controls which of the following?

<p>Involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the statement 'crossed brain' in the context of the text?

<p>That the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and vice versa. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly compares the ANS and the SNS (Somatic Nervous System) pathways?

<p>The SNS has more connections with the CNS than the ANS, providing greater conscious control. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary subject matter discussed in this text?

<p>Various theories that explain the relationship between the brain and behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central concept that unites the theories of Aristotle, Descartes, and modern neuroscience?

<p>The importance of understanding the relationship between the brain and behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

While Descartes's dualism is no longer widely accepted, what lasting impact did it have on our understanding of the brain?

<p>It helped to advance the study of reflexes and mechanistic behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about the term 'mind' in contemporary neuroscience?

<p>The 'mind' is a convenient term that refers to the totality of brain functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the comparison of the water-powered statue to the human body highlight about Descartes's view of behavior?

<p>Behavior can be understood through a mechanistic model of the body. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the organization of the SNS pathways relate to the concept of 'crossed brain'?

<p>The left hemisphere of the brain solely controls the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls the left side. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the dorsal stream?

<p>To guide actions related to objects (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition did D.F. suffer from after her carbon monoxide poisoning?

<p>Visual-form agnosia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Roger W. Sperry's research on split-brain patients reveal about the hemispheres?

<p>Both hemispheres are capable of independent conscious awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the procedures performed by Joseph Bogen and Phillip Vogel on epileptic patients contribute to Sperry's research?

<p>They created a population of individuals whose brain hemispheres were functionally isolated. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of D.F.'s ability to grasp objects despite her visual agnosia?

<p>It suggests that conscious visual perception is not necessary for all motor actions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between visual-form agnosia and visual ataxia?

<p>Agnosia patients can perform visual tasks accurately but cannot describe them, whereas patients with visual ataxia can describe objects but cannot grasp them correctly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the study of agnosia and ataxia reveal about vision?

<p>Vision is a complex, multifaceted system with multiple pathways. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary evidence for the existence of unconscious visual processing?

<p>D.F.'s ability to grasp objects accurately even though she couldn't visually recognize them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the corpus callosum?

<p>To connect the two hemispheres of the brain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary conclusion of Sperry's Nobel lecture?

<p>The hemispheres possess complementary self-awareness and social consciousness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Sperry's claim that much of internal mental life is inaccessible to analysis using spoken language?

<p>It highlights the limitations of using language as the sole tool for understanding brain processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is the implication of Goodale and Milner's research on visual agnosia and ataxia?

<p>Unconscious visual processes play a significant role in guiding actions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of D.F.'s case best demonstrates the difference between conscious and unconscious visual processing?

<p>Her ability to grasp objects accurately despite her visual agnosia. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the study of agnosia and ataxia contribute to our understanding of sensory systems?

<p>They reveal that sensory systems, like vision, are multifaceted and utilize both conscious and unconscious processes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of Sperry's neuropsychology?

<p>Neuropsychology should acknowledge the existence of a private mental life and its influence on behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Gall fail to recognize about phrenology?

<p>He did not consider the superficial appearances of the skull. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Bouillaud argue in his 1825 paper to the Royal Academy of Medicine?

<p>Language is localized in the frontal lobes of the brain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Auburtin's 1861 statement about his patient Bache?

<p>It was a challenge to other scientists to prove his theory wrong. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was unique about Broca's study of Monsieur Leborgne, also known as "Tan"?

<p>It successfully localized the area responsible for speech in the left frontal lobe. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the discovery of functional lateralization?

<p>It demonstrated that the left hemisphere is the dominant hemisphere. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the connection between Gall's theory and the development of understanding about brain localization?

<p>Gall's theory laid the foundation for further investigations into brain localization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the role of Marc Dax's work in the development of understanding about speech lateralization?

<p>His work was initially ignored but later became essential in confirming the link between speech and the left hemisphere. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct way to understand "Broca aphasia" in contemporary terminology?

<p>It refers to the inability to speak due to damage to Broca's area. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the text, what is a key difference between Gall's theory and Broca's findings?

<p>Gall's theory was primarily interested in personality, while Broca focused on language. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the case of Tan contribute to the understanding of brain functions?

<p>It confirmed that a specific brain area is responsible for speech production. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the claim that Broca's publication on Tan was "the fastest publication ever made in science"?

<p>It emphasizes the groundbreaking nature of Broca's discovery. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options best represents the main point of the content?

<p>The development of understanding about brain lateralization was a long process involving many scientists. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information provided, which of these statements is TRUE about the discovery of functional lateralization?

<p>It was a gradual process involving multiple scientists and observations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the left hemisphere referred to as the "dominant hemisphere"?

<p>It is responsible for language, which is central to human consciousness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Broca's observation about Tan's brain tell us about the brain's organization?

<p>The brain is highly interconnected and specialized. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the content, what is the main takeaway regarding the relationship between phrenology and modern neuroscientific understanding?

<p>Phrenology was a flawed science but sparked important research questions that led to modern discoveries. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the author imply about the importance of understanding brain lateralization?

<p>It reveals the complexity of human thought and behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary evidence suggesting that functions are not localized in one specific area of the brain but are distributed across different levels?

<p>The fact that removing the cortex does not completely eliminate any function, but rather reduces all functions, supports hierarchical organization. (A), The observed recovery of function after brain damage, despite the removal of specific areas, supports the idea of hierarchical organization. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the brain's hierarchical organization as proposed by John Hughlings-Jackson?

<p>Higher levels control more complex aspects of behavior using the lower levels as tools. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why removing the cortex does not completely eliminate function, but merely reduces it?

<p>The brain's hierarchical organization ensures that lower levels can still function even if the cortex is removed, leading to a reduction but not complete elimination of function. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the case of H.M. contribute to our understanding of memory?

<p>It revealed that the brain has multiple memory systems that operate independently and in parallel. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a finding that supports the idea of multiple memory systems?

<p>The brain has a single memory structure that is capable of storing memories across different categories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'binding problem' refers to:

<p>The problem of explaining how the brain creates a unified experience from multiple parallel processes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the concept of 'dissolution' as proposed by Hughlings-Jackson?

<p>The reverse of evolution in which the brain loses complex behaviors and reverts to simpler, more primitive functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the case of L.D., as discussed in the text?

<p>It showed that different brain regions are responsible for learning and remembering motor skills. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a reason why brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are a promising avenue for restoring communication with individuals who are conscious but unable to move?

<p>BCIs are non-invasive, making them a safe and convenient communication method. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the text, what is the primary function of state-of-the-art brain-imaging techniques in assessing consciousness in unresponsive individuals?

<p>To assess the overall level of brain activity and identify signs of consciousness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the statement 'we have multiple memory systems' imply about the nature of memory?

<p>Different types of memories are processed differently and stored in different locations. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The concept of hierarchical organization in the brain has implications for understanding:

<p>The impact of brain injury on cognitive function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The research on H.M. highlighted the importance of the _______ in memory formation, but also demonstrated that this structure is not the sole location involved in memory.

<p>hippocampus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary challenge posed by the 'binding problem' in neuroscience?

<p>Understanding how the brain creates a unified experience from distributed processing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between the two hemispheres of the brain?

<p>The two hemispheres are interconnected and collaborate on a wide range of cognitive tasks. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main takeaway from the discussion of the brain's 'two brains'?

<p>The two hemispheres have distinct representations of multiple brain systems, resulting in a 'two-sided' view of the mind. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Brain Anatomy

The structure and organization of the brain within the skull.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, folded and covering internal structures.

Hemispheres

The two symmetrical halves of the brain, left and right.

Four Major Lobes

The divisions of the brain named after the skull bones: occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

The salty fluid that cushions the brain and removes waste.

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Neural Tube

The basic structural plan of the brain, shaped like a tube.

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Occipital Lobe

The lobe located at the back of the brain, responsible for vision.

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Frontal Lobe

The lobe at the front of the brain, involved in reasoning and planning.

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Divided into sensory and motor pathways influencing internal organ functions.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprised of the brain and spinal cord; coordinates body functions.

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Sensory Pathways

Neural pathways that carry sensory information to the CNS.

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Motor Pathways

Neural pathways that carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles.

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Crossed Brain Principle

Each brain hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.

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Mentalism

The philosophical view that the mind controls behavior.

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Dualism

The theory that mind and body are separate but interact.

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Materialism

The belief that everything, including thoughts, is physical and can be studied.

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Psyche

The nonmaterial essence responsible for thoughts and emotions.

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Aristotle's Theory

Proposed that psyche exists independent of the body, influencing actions.

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Descartes' Reflex Action

Behavior response via reflexes, like reactions to stimuli.

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Pineal Body

A brain structure thought to mediate the interaction between mind and body.

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Neuropsychology

The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior.

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Biorhythms

The body's natural cyclical changes influenced by the pineal gland.

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Contemporary Neuroscience

Modern study of the brain focusing on understanding mental processes.

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Neocortex

The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher functions.

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Gyri

Folds or bumps on the surface of the cortex.

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Sulci

Creases or grooves that separate gyri in the cortex.

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Fissures

Large sulci that divide regions of the brain.

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Corpus Callosum

The largest commissure connecting the brain's hemispheres.

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Temporal Lobe

Located below the lateral fissure, associated with hearing and memory.

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Parietal Lobe

Located behind the frontal lobe, processes sensory information.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects CNS to the rest of the body; it includes sensory and motor pathways.

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Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Part of PNS that controls voluntary movements and sensory information from the environment.

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Motor Division

Part of SNS connecting muscles to produce movement.

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Sensory Division

Connects sensory receptors to the brain to process information.

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Cranioscopy

A now-discredited method for evaluating mental abilities based on skull shape.

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Phrenology

A theory that linked skull bumps to personality traits and behaviors.

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Localization of function

The concept that specific brain regions are responsible for particular functions.

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Gall's observations

Gall proposed that different brain functions correspond to specific areas of the brain.

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Lateralization of function

The principle that one side of the brain specializes in certain functions.

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Bouillaud's theory

Proposed that language is located in the frontal lobes of the brain.

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Marc Dax's findings

Showed that speech disorders correlate with left hemisphere brain lesions.

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Auburtin's challenge

Auburtin asserted a connection between brain lesions and speech loss.

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Paul Broca

The founder of the Anthropological Society; discovered Broca's area.

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Broca's area

The region in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production.

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Broca's aphasia

A condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing difficulty speaking.

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Functional lateralization

The specialization of the left hemisphere for language and related functions.

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Tan's case

The case of a patient who could only say 'tan' and had a lesion in Broca's area.

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Lesion

A damaged area in the brain often associated with neurological deficits.

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Research significance

The findings on brain function localization laid the groundwork for neurology.

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Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change physically and chemically to adapt.

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Brain Injury Recovery

The process wherein the brain compensates for damage, often through neuroplasticity.

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Franz Josef Gall

The anatomist who proposed the localization of brain functions.

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Corticospinal tract

The main pathway from the cortex to the spinal cord, controlling movement.

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Gall's Passionate Widow

A patient of Gall who exemplified his ideas of specific brain areas affecting behavior.

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Neuroscientific Perspective

A materialistic view in science that analyzes brain behavior without religious bias.

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Contradicting the 10% usage myth

The idea that people only use a fraction of their brains is incorrect; all parts have functions.

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Behavioral Traits

Characteristics linked to specific brain structures, as proposed by Gall’s studies.

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Scientific Method

A systematic way of investigating relationships between brain and behavior.

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Frontal Lobe Function

Part of the brain that influences speech and language ability.

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Collective Brain Functions

Refers to mind and consciousness as combinations of multiple brain activities.

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Mind-Body Problem

The question of how a nonmaterial mind influences a material body.

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Conservation of Matter and Energy

A fundamental principle that states energy cannot be created or destroyed.

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Parallel Functioning

The idea that mind and body operate simultaneously without direct interaction.

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Evolution by Natural Selection

The process through which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.

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Species

A group of organisms that can breed among themselves but not with others.

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Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism.

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Gregor Mendel

A scientist known as the father of modern genetics for his work on inheritance.

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Genes

Heritable factors that determine traits in organisms.

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Genetics

The study of genes and their functions.

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Epigenetics

The study of how the environment influences gene expression.

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Behavioral Adaptation

Changes in behavior that help an organism survive in its environment.

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Mental Disease

Conditions that impair rational processes of the mind.

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Descent with Modification

The principle that species evolve over time through inherited changes.

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Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)

A system that enables communication for individuals unable to move but conscious.

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Consciousness Assessment

Methods used to determine consciousness in unresponsive individuals, combining brain imaging and behavior.

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Hierarchical Organization

A principle that explains how different levels of the brain control behavior, from simple to complex.

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John Hughlings-Jackson

Neurologist who proposed the hierarchical organization of the brain in behavior processing.

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Dissolution in Brain Function

When brain damage affects higher levels of hierarchy, resulting in simpler behaviors.

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Multiple Memory Systems

The concept that memory is not a single function, but involves various systems working in parallel.

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Case of H.M.

Patient with severe memory impairment after temporal lobe surgery, studied extensively for memory research.

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Amnesia

Partial or total loss of memory often associated with brain injury or surgery.

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Spatial Memory

Type of memory that stores information about the locations of objects and environments.

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Emotional Memory

Memory that captures emotions related to specific events or experiences.

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Binding Problem

The challenge of how the brain integrates separate sensory and motor events into a unified experience.

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Neural Structures

Different brain regions responsible for encoding various aspects of experiences.

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Unified Perception

The ability to perceive a coherent experience from various sensory inputs processed separately.

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Motor Learning vs. Memory

The distinction between acquiring motor skills and remembering having learned them, shown in H.M.’s case.

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Functional Localization

The idea that certain brain functions are located in specific areas of the brain.

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Local Anesthetics

Medications that allow patients to stay awake during surgery by blocking pain in specific areas.

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Stereotaxic Device

A tool used to immobilize a patient's head for precise brain surgery.

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Neurosurgery

Surgical treatment targeting brain abnormalities with the aim of restoring function.

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Focal Lesions

Specific damaged areas in the brain linked to changes in behavior.

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Brain Stimulation

Electrical stimulation used during surgery to identify brain function and damage extent.

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Split-Brain Surgery

A procedure cutting the corpus callosum to reduce seizures.

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Roger Sperry

Neuroscientist who studied split-brain patients.

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Left Hemisphere Functions

Responsible for language and speech in most people.

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Right Hemisphere Functions

Handles comprehension and visual-motor tasks.

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Visual Agnosia

Inability to recognize objects visually while having normal vision.

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Dorsal Stream

Pathway for action guidance related to vision.

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Ventral Stream

Pathway for conscious object recognition.

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Visual-Form Agnosia

Inability to recognize shapes but can grasp them.

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Conscious vs. Unconscious Actions

Much of our behavior is driven by unconscious processes.

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Complementary Self-Awareness

Sperry's idea that both hemispheres have unique consciousness.

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Visuomotor Behavior

Movement based on visual information processing.

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Cortical Blindness

Loss of vision due to damage to the visual cortex.

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Object Recognition

The ability to identify objects visually.

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Disconnection Theory

A theory in neuropsychology that complex behaviors result from brain structure connections.

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Connectome

A comprehensive map of all neural connections in the brain.

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Neural Nets

Computer models designed to simulate brain function and connectome.

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Distributed Function

The concept that brain functions rely on multiple regions rather than one.

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Pierre Flourens

A French physiologist who studied the effects of removing brain regions.

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Friedrich Goltz

A German physiologist known for his extreme brain removal studies in dogs.

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Persistent Vegetative State (PVS)

A condition where a patient is alive but shows no awareness or ability to respond.

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Minimally Conscious State (MCS)

A condition where patients have inconsistent but detectable awareness.

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Deep Brain Stimulation

A treatment involving electrical stimulation of the brain to improve function.

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Conscious Behavior

Actions that are performed with awareness and intention.

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Unconscious Behavior

Actions completed without conscious awareness or intent.

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Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to adapt and recover from injury over time.

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Behavioral Response

An action taken based on stimuli processed by the brain.

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Cortex Recovery

The process by which remaining brain tissues compensate for lost functions.

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Consciousness Challenge

The difficulty in distinguishing between conscious and unconscious behavior.

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Pierre Marie

French anatomist who criticized Broca's conclusions on language localization.

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Wernicke's Area

Region in the temporal lobe critical for language comprehension.

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Wernicke Aphasia

Aphasia characterized by fluent but nonsensical speech and impaired understanding.

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Conduction Aphasia

Aphasia caused by disconnection between Broca's and Wernicke's areas, affecting repetition.

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Lateralization

The specialization of brain functions in either the left or right hemisphere.

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Arcuate Fasciculus

The neural pathway connecting Wernicke's area and Broca's area.

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Alexia

Inability to read due to disconnection between visual and language areas.

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Apraxia

Inability to perform coordinated movements due to disconnection of areas responsible for movement.

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Aphasia

A language disorder affecting comprehension, production, or both.

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Fluent Aphasia

Another term for Wernicke aphasia, where speech is fluent but nonsensical.

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Neuron Theory

The concept that nerve cells are the basic units of brain structure and function.

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Neuron Structure

Neurons consist of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and an axon.

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Types of Cells

The nervous system is composed of neurons and glial cells.

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Neurons

Neurons are discrete, autonomous cells that interact without being physically connected.

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Electrical Signals

Neurons transmit information using electrical signals with a chemical basis.

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Chemical Communication

Neurons communicate with each other using chemical signals.

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Neuronal Dendrites

Dendrites are extensions that increase a neuron's surface area for connections.

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Neuronal Axon

The axon is a long extension that transmits signals away from the neuron's body.

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Neural Plasticity

Neurons allow the brain to adapt and learn, known as plasticity.

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Human Nervous System

Approximately 85 billion neurons and 86 billion glial cells exist in the human brain.

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Microscopy Techniques

Techniques have advanced to visualize and study neuronal structures effectively.

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Cell Staining

Staining allows different parts of neurons to be distinguished for study.

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Golgi Staining Method

Camillo Golgi's method allows the entire neuron to be visualized using silver nitrate.

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Three Basic Parts of Neurons

Neurons have three parts: soma (cell body), dendrites, and axon.

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Anton van Leeuwenhoek

First cellular anatomist to discover nerves; debunked the myth of hollow tubes.

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Santiago Ramón y Cajal

A Spanish anatomist known for his work on neuron development.

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Golgi's Silver Staining

A technique used to visualize neurons in nervous tissue.

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Perineuronal Net

A membrane that surrounds groups of neurons, linking their functions.

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Luigi Galvani

An Italian physicist who discovered electrical stimulation effects on nerves.

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Fritsch and Hitzig's Experiment

Studies demonstrating electrical stimulation can produce movement.

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Topographic Organization

The brain's method of mapping body parts to specific cortex regions.

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Roberts Bartholow

Physician who first electrically stimulated human cortex in 1874.

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Electrical Stimulation Technique

Method to provoke reactions in the brain using electricity.

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Cranial Defect in Mary Rafferty

Condition that allowed direct stimulation of brain areas by Bartholow.

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Ethical Standards in Neuroscience

Guidelines established for humane research on human subjects.

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Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Non-invasive technique using magnetic fields to stimulate brain activity.

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Purkinje Cells

A specific type of neuron illustrated by Cajal, involved in motor control.

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Synapse

A junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

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Neuron Communication

Neurons send signals via electrical impulses and chemical neurotransmitters.

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Elliott Valenstein

Neuropsychologist who wrote about neuronal interactions.

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Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley

Nobel Prize winners who studied neuron information conduction.

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Chemical Messages

Chemicals released by neurons that affect other neurons and muscles.

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Charles Scott Sherrington

Physiologist who introduced the term 'synapse' and studied nerve connections.

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Otto Loewi

Demonstrated that neurotransmitters communicate across synapses.

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Hebb's Theory

Proposes that simultaneous neuron activation strengthens connections.

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Plasticity of the Brain

The brain's ability to change and adapt through new synapses.

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Cell Assemblies

Groups of interconnected neurons that represent a behavior or thought.

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Trephining

An ancient surgical technique for relieving pressure in the skull.

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Craniotomy

A surgical procedure involving the removal of a part of the skull.

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Study Notes

Brain Theory

  • Early humans recognized brains existed and varied in size.
  • Anatomists produced brain drawings and named parts.
  • Anatomists developed methods to describe brain function.

What is the Brain?

  • Brain, an Old English word, refers to the tissue within the skull.
  • The brain has symmetrical hemispheres (left and right).
  • The brain has four major lobes in each hemisphere: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal.
  • The brain is a neural tube containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
  • CSF cushions the brain and removes waste.
  • The neocortex, or cortex, is the folded outer layer of the brain.
  • Gyri are the folds, and sulci are the creases between folds, some large sulci being called fissures.
  • Commissures connect the brain hemispheres (corpus callosum is the largest).
  • Lobes are named after the underlying skull bones.
    • Temporal lobe: below lateral fissure, relates to aging.
    • Frontal lobe: front of the brain.
    • Parietal lobe: behind frontal lobe.
    • Occipital lobe: back of each hemisphere.
  • The forebrain (from the front of the neural tube) is largely the cerebral cortex.
  • The brainstem is the underlying portion of the brain.
  • The spinal cord connects to the brainstem.

How Does the Brain Relate to the Rest of the Nervous System?

  • The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system (CNS).
  • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) carries information to and from the CNS.
  • PNS regrows after damage; CNS does not.
  • The somatic nervous system (SNS) senses and responds to the external world.
  • The autonomic nervous system (ANS) senses and responds to internal organs.
  • Sensory pathways carry information to the opposite hemisphere's cortex.
  • Motor pathways produce movements.

Perspectives on the Brain and Behavior

  • Mentalism (Aristotle): A nonmaterial psyche (mind) is responsible for behavior, operating through the heart.
  • Dualism (Descartes): Mind and body are separate but interact. Mind acts through the pineal gland to control bodily movements.
  • Materialism: Rational behavior is explained entirely by the nervous system. (Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection supports this view.)

Brain Function: Insights from Brain Injury

  • Localization of Function: Different brain areas control different functions. (Gall and Spurzheim proposed phrenology).
  • Lateralization of Function: One hemisphere specializes in certain functions. (Broca linked speech production to the left frontal lobe.)
  • Wernicke's Model: Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected for language processing. Damage leads to aphasia; damage to pathways causes conduction aphasia.
  • Disconnection: Complex behaviors require communication between different brain areas. (Cutting pathways disrupts function).

Distributed Function

  • Many functions depend on multiple brain regions.
  • This enables recovery of function after damage.

Hierarchical Organization

  • Information processing is hierarchical.
  • Higher levels control more complex behaviors via lower levels.
  • Damage to higher levels causes simpler, less evolved behaviors.

Multiple Memory Systems

  • Behaviors like memory and athletic skill result from multiple parallel systems. (Multiple memory systems).
  • Studies on patient H.M. showed that different parts of the brain encode different aspects of memories.
  • The brain "binds" these separate aspects into a single experience.

Two brains

  • Split-brain surgeries (cutting the corpus callosum) demonstrate specialized functions in each hemisphere.
  • The right hemisphere processes information inaccessible to spoken language.

Conscious and Unconscious Neural Streams

  • Much of our behavior is unconscious.
  • Vision involves both conscious and unconscious pathways (ventral and dorsal streams).

Neuron Theory

  • The brain is composed of neurons and glial cells (1:1 ratio).
  • Neurons are discrete, autonomous cells.
  • Neurons communicate electrochemically.

Relating Electrical Activity to Behavior

  • Electrical stimulation of the brain causes movements.
  • Different brain regions elicit particular movements.
  • Stimulation can reveal topographic neural representations.

Contributions from Allied Fields

  • Neurosurgery: trephination, antisepsis, anesthesia, local/stereotactic advances, have informed understanding of brain injury treatment and mapping of brain function.

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