Nervous System Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is the resting potential of most neurons?

  • -30 mV
  • -50 mV
  • -90 mV
  • -70 mV (correct)

The Na+/K+ pump transports 3 sodium ions into the cell and 2 potassium ions out of the cell.

False (B)

What is the primary function of K+ channels in maintaining resting potential?

K+ channels allow potassium ions to leave the cell, making the inside more negative.

Pumps use _____ to exchange ions across the membrane.

<p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the ion channel with its function:

<p>Na+/K+ pump = Exchanges 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in Ca++ pump = Keeps Ca++ ions out Passive K+ channel = Allows K+ ions to leak out Sodium ion channel = Facilitates Na+ influx during action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes the inside of the neuron to become more negative?

<p>Efflux of K+ ions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At rest, Na+ channels are more permeable than K+ channels.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two forces that affect ion movement across membranes?

<p>Diffusion and electrical forces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hemisphere is primarily responsible for motor control in right-handed individuals?

<p>Left hemisphere (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The basal ganglia are responsible for conscious muscle movements.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the white matter in the cerebrum?

<p>Connecting fibers leading to other parts of the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The area for _____ is responsible for processing sound in the brain.

<p>Auditory</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the brain function with its corresponding lobe:

<p>Frontal lobe = Decision making and planning Parietal lobe = Sensory perception Temporal lobe = Auditory processing Occipital lobe = Visual processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which role is NOT associated with the medulla oblongata?

<p>Links with cerebellum (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The pons is solely responsible for the control of visceral motor functions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What part of the brain relays all sensory information except for smell to the cerebral cortex?

<p>Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ sends impulses to breathing muscles and is a reflex center of the medulla oblongata.

<p>medullary rhythmicity center</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following brain structures with their primary functions:

<p>Medulla Oblongata = Breathing regulation and reflex actions Pons = Links cerebellum and brainstem Thalamus = Relay sensory information Cerebrum = Higher cognitive functions and processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure acts as a protective barrier that selectively allows certain substances to enter the brain?

<p>Blood-brain barrier (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The cerebellum is primarily responsible for regulating automatic survival functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the pons in the brain?

<p>Regulating sleep and relaying messages between different parts of the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The three layers protecting the brain and spinal cord are the ______, ______, and ______ mater.

<p>dura, arachnoid, pia</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following characters describe the left hemisphere's functions?

<p>Logical thinking and analytical skills (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the brain region with its primary function:

<p>Cerebellum = Coordination and balance Medulla = Regulating involuntary functions Cerebrum = Higher cognitive functions Basal ganglia = Control of movement and coordination</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cerebrospinal fluid plays a role in transporting nutrients but not in cushioning the brain.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the diencephalon play within the brain?

<p>It acts as a relay station for sensory information and regulates functions like sleeping and eating.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature is characteristic of phospholipids?

<p>Non-polar and polar ends (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Steroids are generally linear in structure and not found in cell membranes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein is known for carrying iron in the blood?

<p>Hemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

Phospholipids have ____ tails and a phosphate group.

<p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the biomolecule with its primary function:

<p>Phospholipids = Form cell membranes Steroids = Hormonal signaling Proteins = Catalyze biochemical reactions Nucleic acids = Store genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of RNA in cells?

<p>Directs protein synthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

DNA has a single-stranded structure.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of nucleic acids?

<p>DNA and RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

The sugar phosphate ______ forms the backbone of a DNA strand.

<p>backbone</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following nucleotide properties with their descriptions:

<p>Complementary base pairing = Nucleotides bind with their specific partners Antiparallel arrangement = Strands run in opposite directions Polarity = Orientation of the DNA strands Monomers = Basic building blocks of nucleic acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following carbohydrates is primarily used for energy storage in plants?

<p>Starch (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Chitin is easily digestible by humans.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of fat is solid at room temperature?

<p>Saturated fat</p> Signup and view all the answers

_____ is the enzyme found in saliva that breaks down starch.

<p>Amylase</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following biomolecules with their primary roles:

<p>Sugars = Energy fuel Glycogen = Energy storage in animals Cellulose = Structural strength in plants Chitin = Structural support in fungi and insects</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fat prevents molecules from packing tightly together?

<p>Unsaturated fat (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cellulose can be digested by humans easily.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of glycogen in animals?

<p>Energy storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of meiosis do homologous chromosomes line up in pairs on the metaphase plate?

<p>Metaphase I (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Independent assortment occurs in metaphase I of meiosis.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of non-disjunction during meiosis?

<p>Aneuploidy</p> Signup and view all the answers

During ____________, spindle fibers guide whole chromosomes to the poles of the cell.

<p>Anaphase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following disorders with their associated chromosomal abnormalities:

<p>Down syndrome = Trisomy 21 Turner syndrome = X0 Klinefelter syndrome = XXY</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is formed as a result of meiosis II?

<p>Four daughter cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sister chromatids move to the same pole during Anaphase I in meiosis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase do the chromosomes become individual chromosomes as centromeres separate?

<p>Anaphase II</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary advantage of sexual reproduction?

<p>It creates genetic variation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Diploid cells have half the number of chromosomes compared to haploid cells.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of cell division and which one results in gametes?

<p>Mitosis and meiosis; meiosis results in gametes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In humans, the diploid number of chromosomes is _____ and the haploid number is _____.

<p>46; 23</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during Prophase I of meiosis?

<p>Chromosomes condense and homologous chromosomes pair up. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the phase of meiosis with its definition:

<p>Interphase = Chromosome replication occurs. Prophase I = Homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs. Meiosis I = Reduction division that results in two daughter cells. Meiosis II = Division similar to mitosis that separates sister chromatids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Crossing over is a process that does not contribute to genetic variation in meiosis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of internal fertilization in sexual reproduction?

<p>It allows sperm to meet eggs in a dry environment and is more efficient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Resting potential

The stable electrical potential difference across the neuron's membrane when it is not transmitting a signal. In most neurons, this is approximately -70 mV.

Neuron's resting potential

-70mV, is the potential across the neuron's membrane when at rest.

Na+/K+ pump

A protein that actively transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell, using energy from ATP.

Ion concentration

The relative amount of different ions inside and outside a neuron.

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Diffusion

The movement of ions from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

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Electrical force

The force exerted on an ion due to its charge in relation to the charge difference across the membrane.

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Passive K+ channels

Channels that allow potassium ions to leak out of the neuron, contributing to the resting potential.

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Equilibrium potential

The membrane potential at which the movement of an ion across the membrane is balanced by the electrical and chemical forces.

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Medulla Oblongata

The lowest part of the brainstem, controlling vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

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Medullary Rhythmicity Center

A region within the medulla that regulates the rhythm of breathing by sending signals to the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles.

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Cardiac Center

Part of the medulla that controls the heart's rate and strength of contraction.

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Vasomotor Center

Region in the medulla responsible for regulating blood vessel diameter, influencing blood pressure.

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Thalamus

A relay station in the brain that receives sensory information (except smell) from the body and sends it to the cerebral cortex.

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Brain Function: White Matter

The white matter of the cerebrum is mainly composed of connecting fibers that transmit information to other brain areas. It acts as a communication network, while the actual processing occurs in the grey matter.

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Brain Function: Grey Matter

Grey matter is responsible for processing information in the brain. It contains the cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of neurons.

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Basal Ganglia: Role in Movement

The basal ganglia are responsible for controlling muscle tone and subconscious movements. They help with smooth, coordinated actions and learned movement patterns.

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Basal Ganglia Damage: Symptoms

Damage to the basal ganglia can lead to tremors, problems with muscle tone, and difficulties with smooth, coordinated movement.

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Association Areas: Interpreting Sensory Data

Association areas located in each lobe of the brain receive and interpret sensory information from the thalamus. They help us make sense of what we see, hear, smell, taste, and feel.

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What protects the brain?

The brain is protected by the skull, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and the blood-brain barrier.

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Cerebrospinal Fluid

CSF is a clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning, protection from infection, and nutrient transport.

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Blood-brain barrier

A selective barrier formed by capillaries in the brain, allowing rapid passage of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, and lipid-soluble substances but restricting entry of proteins, toxins, and certain antibiotics.

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Meninges

Three layers of protective membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord, providing an additional layer of defense against injury.

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Dura mater

The outermost layer of the meninges, tough and fibrous, providing a strong protective barrier.

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Arachnoid mater

The middle layer of the meninges, a delicate web-like structure, responsible for housing blood vessels.

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Pia mater

The innermost layer of the meninges, thin and delicate, tightly covering the brain's surface.

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Brainstem

The part of the brain responsible for basic survival functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

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Carbohydrate Functions

Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source for the body. They also play a role in structural support for plants (cellulose) and animals (chitin).

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Glycogen

Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals. It is primarily stored in the liver.

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Starch

Starch is a complex carbohydrate used for energy storage in plants. It is broken down by the enzyme amylase, found in saliva.

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Cellulose

Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate that forms the cell walls of plants. Humans cannot digest it, but some animals like termites and cows can.

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Chitin

Chitin is a structural carbohydrate found in the walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects. Humans have a specific enzyme called chitinase to digest it, but we don't produce much.

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Lipids/Fats

Lipids, commonly known as fats, are non-polar molecules that are hydrophobic. They play roles in energy storage, cushioning, waterproofing, and hormone production.

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Saturated Fats

Saturated fats have straight chains and pack tightly, making them solid at room temperature. Examples include butter, lard, and bacon fat.

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Unsaturated Fats

Unsaturated fats have bent chains, preventing them from packing tightly and making them liquid at room temperature. Examples include olive oil and canola oil.

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Phospholipids: Key Components

Phospholipids are essential building blocks for cell membranes. They have a unique structure consisting of a polar head (hydrophilic) and two non-polar tails (hydrophobic). This dual nature enables them to form the cell membrane's structure, acting as a barrier between the interior and exterior of the cell.

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Steroids: Molecular Rings

Steroids are a class of lipids characterized by their four interconnected ring structures. They play crucial roles in the body, including in cell membranes (cholesterol) and as hormones that regulate various bodily functions.

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Proteins: Building Blocks of Life

Proteins are large, complex molecules composed of amino acids linked together in specific sequences. They are incredibly diverse in their functions, carrying out vital roles in virtually every cellular process, such as structural support, enzymatic activity, and transport.

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Protein Structure & Function

The shape and structure of a protein determine its specific function. Any disruption in the protein's structure, at any level, can render it non-functional. This emphasizes the crucial importance of maintaining proper protein structure for proper cell function.

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Nucleic Acids: Heredity's Carriers

Nucleic acids, like DNA and RNA, are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. They act as blueprints for building and maintaining an organism, ensuring the continuity of life across generations.

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DNA & RNA

Two types of nucleic acids: DNA stores genetic information and directs RNA synthesis, while RNA directs protein synthesis.

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Nucleotide Bases

The building blocks of nucleic acids, forming the genetic code. They include Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T) in DNA. Uracil (U) replaces Thymine in RNA.

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DNA Structure

DNA is a double-stranded helix with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nucleotide bases forming the rungs. The two strands are complementary (A pairs with T, G pairs with C) and antiparallel (running in opposite directions).

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What is a gene?

A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a specific protein. Each gene is responsible for a particular trait or function in the organism.

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Protein Synthesis

The process of making proteins from the genetic instructions encoded in DNA, using RNA as an intermediary. This involves transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).

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Meiosis

The process of producing gametes (egg and sperm) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

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Diploid

Having two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent).

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Haploid

Having only one set of chromosomes.

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Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis I, which creates new combinations of genes.

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Tetrad

A pair of homologous chromosomes that are joined together during meiosis I.

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Chiasmata

The point where non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material during crossing over.

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Meiosis I

The first division of meiosis, which results in two daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Includes stages like prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I.

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Meiosis II

The second division of meiosis, which results in four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Starts with the haploid cells produced during meiosis I and divides them further, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.

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Independent Assortment

The random arrangement of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I of meiosis, leading to different combinations of chromosomes in gametes.

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Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during anaphase I of meiosis, resulting in gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.

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Aneuploidy

A condition where an individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes. Examples include Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Turner syndrome (XO), and Klinefelter syndrome (XXY).

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Prophase I

The first stage of meiosis where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material.

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Metaphase I

The stage of meiosis I where homologous chromosome pairs line up on the metaphase plate, ready to separate.

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Anaphase I

The stage of meiosis I where homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

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Telophase I/Cytokinesis

The final stage of meiosis I where two daughter cells are formed, each containing half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.

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Study Notes

Nervous System Overview

  • The nervous system is responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body.
  • It comprises two main components:
    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Processes and interprets information. Sends signals to muscles, glands and organs. Includes the brain and spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Transmits information to and from the CNS. Includes nerves that extend throughout the body.
      • Further divisions:
      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movements.
      • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates internal organs and glands. Divided into:
        • Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the body for action (fight or flight).
        • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy.

Neuron Structure and Function

  • Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system.
  • Key components of a neuron include:
    • Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
    • Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons or effector cells.
    • Axon hillock: Integrates signals from dendrites and initiates action potentials.
    • Myelin sheath: Insulates the axon, speeding up signal transmission.
    • Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where action potentials are generated, increasing speed.
    • Synaptic terminals: Release neurotransmitters at synapses.
    • Nissl bodies (RER and free ribosomes): Sites of protein synthesis within the cell body.
    • Neurofilaments/neurotubules: Provides structural support and intracellular transport within the axon.
    • Golgi apparatus: Involved in packaging and modifying proteins, including neurotransmitters.
    • Mitochondria: provide energy for neuronal activity.
    • Axonlemma: The membrane surrounding the axon.
    • Telodendria: Branching terminal fibers of the axon.

Types of Neurons

  • Bipolar neurons: Have one axon and one dendrite.
  • Unipolar neurons: Have one axon that divides into two branches.
  • Multipolar neurons: Have one axon and multiple dendrites..

Neuroglial Cells

  • Neuroglial cells, or glia, support and protect neurons.
    • Different types exist, each with specific roles:
    • Astrocytes (neuroglia) support neurons and regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid.
    • Oligodendrocytes (CNS): Produce myelin sheaths around axons; crucial for fast impulse transmission.
    • Schwann cells (PNS): Similar to oligodendrocytes in function, producing myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system.
    • Microglia: Immune cells in the central nervous system, removing cellular debris and pathogens.
    • Ependymal cells: Line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord, producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and regulating its composition.

Action Potentials

  • Action potential: Rapid changes in membrane potential that propagate along the axon. Governed by ion channels, leading to depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization of the axon.

Resting Potential and Ion Channels

  • Resting membrane potential is the stable membrane potential of a neuron at rest (around -70 mV).
  • Various ion channels (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium) contribute, resulting in the maintained resting potential.
  • Ion concentrations are kept controlled, with sodium and potassium actively pumped across the cell membranes by Na+/K+ pumps. Calcium is also actively pumped out by Ca++ pumps.

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Description

Explore the structure and function of the nervous system in this comprehensive quiz. Understand the roles of the Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System, and delve into the details of neuron structure. Test your knowledge on how these systems work together to transmit information throughout the body.

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