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Questions and Answers
Questions and Answers
Describe the three types of neurons and their functions.
Describe the three types of neurons and their functions.
The three types of neurons are sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Motor neurons transmit impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect neurons within the central nervous system.
Explain how a nerve impulse is conducted along a nerve and across a synapse.
Explain how a nerve impulse is conducted along a nerve and across a synapse.
A nerve impulse is conducted along a nerve as an electrochemical signal. The signal travels as a wave of depolarization down the axon, caused by the movement of ions across the membrane. At the synapse, the impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through the release of neurotransmitters, which bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
What are the three layers of meninges, and what are their functions?
What are the three layers of meninges, and what are their functions?
The three layers of meninges are dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater is the outermost layer, providing protection and support. The arachnoid mater is the middle layer, containing cerebrospinal fluid. The pia mater is the innermost layer, adhering to the brain and spinal cord.
Describe the major parts of the brain and the lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Describe the major parts of the brain and the lobes of the cerebral cortex.
Explain how the nervous system works with other systems of the body to maintain homeostasis.
Explain how the nervous system works with other systems of the body to maintain homeostasis.
Explain the role of sodium-potassium pumps in establishing and maintaining the resting membrane potential of a neuron.
Explain the role of sodium-potassium pumps in establishing and maintaining the resting membrane potential of a neuron.
What are the three main types of neurons and what is their function?
What are the three main types of neurons and what is their function?
Describe the structural difference between motor and sensory neurons.
Describe the structural difference between motor and sensory neurons.
What are the primary functions of the prefrontal area of the brain?
What are the primary functions of the prefrontal area of the brain?
Why is the membrane of a neuron at rest considered polarized?
Why is the membrane of a neuron at rest considered polarized?
What is an action potential, and what role do voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels play in its generation?
What is an action potential, and what role do voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels play in its generation?
What is the relationship between Broca's area and speech production?
What is the relationship between Broca's area and speech production?
How does Wernicke's area contribute to language comprehension?
How does Wernicke's area contribute to language comprehension?
Describe the steps involved in the generation of an action potential.
Describe the steps involved in the generation of an action potential.
Describe the role of the central white matter in communicating information throughout the brain.
Describe the role of the central white matter in communicating information throughout the brain.
What is the difference between the resting membrane potential and the action potential?
What is the difference between the resting membrane potential and the action potential?
What are the main functions of interneurons in the CNS?
What are the main functions of interneurons in the CNS?
Explain the difference between descending and ascending tracts in the central white matter.
Explain the difference between descending and ascending tracts in the central white matter.
What is the primary function of the corpus callosum?
What is the primary function of the corpus callosum?
What are the basal nuclei, and what role do they play in motor control?
What are the basal nuclei, and what role do they play in motor control?
How do the basal nuclei contribute to learning and memory?
How do the basal nuclei contribute to learning and memory?
What initiates a second action potential in a neuron?
What initiates a second action potential in a neuron?
How does depolarization occur at adjacent regions of the axon?
How does depolarization occur at adjacent regions of the axon?
What is continuous conduction in axons?
What is continuous conduction in axons?
Describe saltatory conduction.
Describe saltatory conduction.
What are the components of a synapse?
What are the components of a synapse?
What role do neurotransmitters play in synaptic transmission?
What role do neurotransmitters play in synaptic transmission?
What triggers the entry of Ca2+ into the axon terminal?
What triggers the entry of Ca2+ into the axon terminal?
What happens to the action potential once it reaches the axon terminal?
What happens to the action potential once it reaches the axon terminal?
What is the primary neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic division of the ANS?
What is the primary neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic division of the ANS?
What type of reflex involves automatic and involuntary responses, and can involve either the brain or spinal cord?
What type of reflex involves automatic and involuntary responses, and can involve either the brain or spinal cord?
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and their respective functions?
What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and their respective functions?
What is the role of viscerals reflexes in the body?
What is the role of viscerals reflexes in the body?
In contrast to the sympathetic division, what effect does the parasympathetic division have on heart rate?
In contrast to the sympathetic division, what effect does the parasympathetic division have on heart rate?
What genetic condition is commonly associated with a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease?
What genetic condition is commonly associated with a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease?
What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
What are the pathological features associated with Alzheimer's Disease?
What are the pathological features associated with Alzheimer's Disease?
What is the reflex arc and what does it involve?
What is the reflex arc and what does it involve?
Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary motor responses?
Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary motor responses?
What divides the left and right cerebral hemispheres?
What divides the left and right cerebral hemispheres?
Where is the primary motor area located in the brain?
Where is the primary motor area located in the brain?
What are gyri and sulci in the context of the brain's structure?
What are gyri and sulci in the context of the brain's structure?
Which area of the brain is primarily associated with taste sensations?
Which area of the brain is primarily associated with taste sensations?
What is the function of the primary visual area?
What is the function of the primary visual area?
Explain the concept of the cortical homunculus.
Explain the concept of the cortical homunculus.
What role do association areas play in the cerebral cortex?
What role do association areas play in the cerebral cortex?
Which lobe of the brain is primarily involved in auditory processing?
Which lobe of the brain is primarily involved in auditory processing?
Questions and Answers
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Flashcards
Flashcards
Neuron Structure
Neuron Structure
Neurons are nerve cells with a cell body, dendrites, and an axon that transmit impulses.
Types of Neurons
Types of Neurons
There are three types of neurons: sensory, motor, and interneurons, each serving specific roles.
Meninges
Meninges
The meninges are three protective layers (dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater) covering the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
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Reflex Arc
Reflex Arc
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Action Potential
Action Potential
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Depolarization
Depolarization
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Local Current
Local Current
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Continuous Conduction
Continuous Conduction
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Saltatory Conduction
Saltatory Conduction
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Axon Terminal
Axon Terminal
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Synapse
Synapse
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
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Motor Neurons
Motor Neurons
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Sensory Neurons
Sensory Neurons
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Interneurons
Interneurons
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Resting Membrane Potential
Resting Membrane Potential
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Na+/K+ Pump
Na+/K+ Pump
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Voltage-Gated Channels
Voltage-Gated Channels
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Neuron Polarization
Neuron Polarization
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Reflexes
Reflexes
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Cerebrum
Cerebrum
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum
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Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
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Cortical Homunculus
Cortical Homunculus
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Primary Visual Area
Primary Visual Area
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Primary Auditory Area
Primary Auditory Area
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Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
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Cranial Reflexes
Cranial Reflexes
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Spinal Reflexes
Spinal Reflexes
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
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Sympathetic Division
Sympathetic Division
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Parasympathetic Division
Parasympathetic Division
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Visceral Reflexes
Visceral Reflexes
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Processing Centers
Processing Centers
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Prefrontal Area
Prefrontal Area
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Broca's Area
Broca's Area
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Wernicke's Area
Wernicke's Area
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Central White Matter
Central White Matter
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Corpus Callosum
Corpus Callosum
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Basal Nuclei
Basal Nuclei
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Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
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Flashcards
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Study Notes
Study Notes
Nervous System Overview
- The nervous system has three main functions that maintain homeostasis: sensory input, integration, and motor output.
- The nervous system is comprised of two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
- The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord.
- The PNS includes all other nervous components outside the CNS, including cranial and spinal nerves. It is further divided into afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) divisions.
- The afferent division brings sensory information to the CNS.
- The efferent division carries motor information from the CNS to effectors.
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
- Nervous tissue consists of neurons and neuroglia.
- Neurons generate and transmit nerve impulses.
- Neuroglia support and nourish neurons; they cannot conduct impulses.
- Neurons have three main parts: cell body, dendrites, and axons.
- Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors and other neurons.
- Axons conduct nerve signals away from the cell body. Axons may be myelinated (in the PNS or CNS). Myelin acts as an insulator.
- Bundles of axons are called nerves (PNS) or tracts (CNS).
Neuroglia in CNS & PNS
- Microglia in the CNS engulf bacterial and cellular debris.
- Astrocytes provide nutrients to neurons and produce growth factors.
- Oligodendrocytes form myelin in the CNS.
- Ependymal cells line brain ventricles and the central canal. They help produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
- Schwann cells and satellite glial cells in the PNS form myelin sheaths around axons and surround the neuronal cell bodies.
Neuron: Signal Generation and Conduction
- The resting membrane potential is when the neuron is polarized; it has a negative charge inside and a positive charge outside.
- Action potentials are rapid changes in membrane potential that allow nerve impulses to be conducted. This involves sequential opening and closing of sodium and potassium voltage-gated ion channels (depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization).
- Action potentials are “all-or-none” events, meaning their strength does not change with the strength of the triggering stimulus.
- Action potential propagation occurs in different ways depending if the axons are myelinated or unmyelinated. Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster via saltatory conduction. The propagation of action potentials down the axon is crucial for signal transmission.
Synaptic Transmission
- Synapses are regions of close proximity between two neurons that allow signal transmission.
- Chemical signals across synapses involve the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron which bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptors and open ion channels to change the postsynaptic membrane potential (graded potentials).
- Many different types of neurotransmitters exist. They regulate and facilitate nerve impulse transmission.
Types of Neurons
- Neurons are classified by function into motor, sensory, and interneurons.
- Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles, organs, or glands.
- Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS.
- Interneurons are located entirely within the CNS and carry nerve impulses between neurons.
Graded Potentials
- Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential that vary in amplitude and duration depending on the strength of the stimulus.
- They can be excitatory or inhibitory in their effect depending on the direction/magnitude of the membrane potential change.
- Summation of graded potentials is essential for decision-making abilities of nervous system.
Brain Regions and Functions
- The brain includes cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem, and associated structures & functions.
- The frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes are distinct regions of the cerebral cortex that carry specific functions (sensory input, motor output, memory, etc).
- Association areas help integrate incoming data from other areas.
- The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem coordinates many involuntary body functions.
- The cerebellum coordinates movement and posture, aids in learning new motor skills.
- The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis and is directly tied to the endocrine system.
- The thalamus is connected to many brain regions and acts as a sensory relay station, regulating various sensory inputs.
- The reticular formation regulates vital functions.
Spinal Cord
- The spinal cord extends from the brainstem to the lumbar vertebrae and is protected by the vertebral column.
- It contains white and gray matter.
- Sensory information travels via the posterior roots/spinal nerves to the spinal cord, while motor signals travel via the anterior roots to the effector cells.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- The PNS lies outside of the CNS.
- It includes nerves and ganglia.
- The PNS further divides into afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) divisions.
- The afferent division conveys sensory impulses towards the CNS.
- The efferent divisions conveys impulses away from the CNS and is further divided into somatic motor and autonomic motor portions.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- The ANS regulates involuntary functions.
- It has two main divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
- Their effects on the body often oppose each other.
- The sympathetic division prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses; whereas, the parasympathetic division promotes "rest or digest" responses.
Neurological Problems
- Neurological problems such as Alzheimer’s disease are associated with specific anatomical abnormalities and dysfunction
- Examples of neurological problems include Alzheimer’s disease and spinal cord injuries.
Effects of Ageing
- The effects of aging on the nervous system leads to changes in brain mass and neurotransmitter production. However, significant mental decline is not uniform or automatic.
Homeostasis and Nervous System
- The nervous system plays a major role in maintaining homeostasis, detecting and responding to changes in the internal and external environments, coordinating other systems.
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