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Questions and Answers
What is a characteristic of absence seizures?
What is a characteristic of absence seizures?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily excitatory and encourages neuron firing?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily excitatory and encourages neuron firing?
What type of imaging technique can be used for the diagnosis of epilepsy?
What type of imaging technique can be used for the diagnosis of epilepsy?
What might occur if seizures in epilepsy cannot be controlled?
What might occur if seizures in epilepsy cannot be controlled?
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How do sodium and potassium ions relate to action potentials in neurons?
How do sodium and potassium ions relate to action potentials in neurons?
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What primarily characterizes epilepsy?
What primarily characterizes epilepsy?
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Which of the following is NOT a symptom associated with seizures?
Which of the following is NOT a symptom associated with seizures?
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How are seizures and epilepsy differentiated?
How are seizures and epilepsy differentiated?
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What do convulsions refer to in the context of seizures?
What do convulsions refer to in the context of seizures?
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Which condition is most likely to result in seizures as a secondary symptom?
Which condition is most likely to result in seizures as a secondary symptom?
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What is a primary characteristic of non-convulsive seizures?
What is a primary characteristic of non-convulsive seizures?
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In which condition can seizures occur frequently without a known cause?
In which condition can seizures occur frequently without a known cause?
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Which of the following statements about seizures is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about seizures is incorrect?
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What is a common sign of a seizure that involves loss of consciousness?
What is a common sign of a seizure that involves loss of consciousness?
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Which type of seizure is characterized by a single locus of hyperactive neurons and does not involve a loss of consciousness?
Which type of seizure is characterized by a single locus of hyperactive neurons and does not involve a loss of consciousness?
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Which symptom is NOT typically associated with seizures?
Which symptom is NOT typically associated with seizures?
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What distinguishes complex partial seizures from simple partial seizures?
What distinguishes complex partial seizures from simple partial seizures?
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What can happen if a simple partial seizure progresses?
What can happen if a simple partial seizure progresses?
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Which sign is often associated with generalized body movements during seizures?
Which sign is often associated with generalized body movements during seizures?
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Which aspect is not characteristic of focal seizures?
Which aspect is not characteristic of focal seizures?
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What is a potential visual cue of seizure activity in a person?
What is a potential visual cue of seizure activity in a person?
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What is the mechanism by which certain antiseizure drugs delay neuronal action potentials?
What is the mechanism by which certain antiseizure drugs delay neuronal action potentials?
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Which of the following antiseizure drugs primarily acts by increasing the availability of GABA in the brain?
Which of the following antiseizure drugs primarily acts by increasing the availability of GABA in the brain?
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Which class of antiseizure medications enhances the action of GABA at the GABAA receptor?
Which class of antiseizure medications enhances the action of GABA at the GABAA receptor?
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How do drugs like carbamazepine and valproate reduce high-frequency neuronal activity?
How do drugs like carbamazepine and valproate reduce high-frequency neuronal activity?
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Which mechanism is involved in the action of GABA in the brain?
Which mechanism is involved in the action of GABA in the brain?
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What is the primary effect of chloride ions entering the neuron when the receptor is stimulated?
What is the primary effect of chloride ions entering the neuron when the receptor is stimulated?
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What is the role of phenobarbital in relation to GABA?
What is the role of phenobarbital in relation to GABA?
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What is the effect of increasing chloride ion influx on neuronal activity?
What is the effect of increasing chloride ion influx on neuronal activity?
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Which type of calcium channels is primarily involved in the generation of absence seizures?
Which type of calcium channels is primarily involved in the generation of absence seizures?
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Which anticonvulsant primarily works by inhibiting GABA reuptake?
Which anticonvulsant primarily works by inhibiting GABA reuptake?
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What is the mechanism by which ethosuximide, valproate, and lamotrigine help control absence seizures?
What is the mechanism by which ethosuximide, valproate, and lamotrigine help control absence seizures?
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How do antiseizure drugs affect calcium entry into neurons?
How do antiseizure drugs affect calcium entry into neurons?
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What effect does an increased electrical threshold have on the likelihood of seizures?
What effect does an increased electrical threshold have on the likelihood of seizures?
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What characterizes atonic seizures?
What characterizes atonic seizures?
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Which type of seizure is characterized by both tonic and clonic phases?
Which type of seizure is characterized by both tonic and clonic phases?
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Which drug class is phenytoin a part of?
Which drug class is phenytoin a part of?
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What defines status epilepticus?
What defines status epilepticus?
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Which of the following options describes absence seizures?
Which of the following options describes absence seizures?
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Which antiseizure drug is the newest in the hydantoins class?
Which antiseizure drug is the newest in the hydantoins class?
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What are typical symptoms of myoclonic seizures?
What are typical symptoms of myoclonic seizures?
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Which group of antiseizure drugs includes drugs that are useful for absence seizures?
Which group of antiseizure drugs includes drugs that are useful for absence seizures?
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Study Notes
Unit 1: Nervous System
- Covers the definition, pathophysiology, causes, signs, symptoms, management, and complications of various nervous system disorders.
- Included disorders are seizures, parkinsonism, dementia (Alzheimer's Disease), depression, nociception (central and peripheral), and pyrexia.
Nervous System Anatomy
- The nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, is depicted.
- A diagram of a motor neuron illustrates dendrites, cell body, nucleus, axon, myelin sheath, and neuromuscular junction, with labeled parts.
- Brain regions depicted include frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
What is a Seizure?
- A seizure is a brief, temporary disruption of brain electrical activity affecting muscle control, speech, vision, and awareness.
- Seizures can be convulsive or non-convulsive, and vary in frequency and severity.
Seizures vs. Epilepsy
- Seizures may be symptoms of an underlying medical condition (e.g., fever, illness).
- Epilepsy is a chronic disorder characterized by recurrent seizures.
Epilepsy
- A neurological disorder making people susceptible to seizures.
- Seizures are chronic (ongoing and frequent).
- Seizures might occur without a known cause.
- Many experience multiple types of seizures.
Causes of Seizures
- Head injury (e.g., accidents, falls).
- Intracerebral injuries (e.g., tumors, strokes).
- Birth injury/complications.
- Metabolic disorders
- Fever
- Congenital disorders
- Infections (e.g., meningitis)
- Heredity
Unit 1: Seizures - Causes (Triggers)
- Missed medication dose
- Sleep deprivation
- Illness
- Stress/anxiety/overstimulation
- Hormonal changes
- Alcohol and drug use
- Hyperventilation
- Flashing lights
- Temperature extremes/dehydration
Types of Seizures
- Focal (partial): Occurs in part of the brain. Includes simple and complex partial seizures.
- Generalized: Affects the entire brain. Includes tonic, atonic, tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and absence seizures.
Pathophysiology
- Epilepsy is characterized by recurrent seizures from abnormal brain electrical activity.
- Seizures can range from mild absences or major convulsive events.
- Psychomotor seizures involve a period of disorientation lasting 1-2 minutes.
Diagnosis
- Electroencephalography (EEG) studies detect brain activity abnormalities.
- Antiepileptic and anticonvulsant drugs, and sometimes surgery, control seizures.
- Careful monitoring, medical history & physical exam, and imaging are crucial.
Nerve Cell Communication
- Neurons communicate using neurotransmitters which regulate electrical activity.
- Glutamate is excitatory (triggers firing), while GABA is inhibitory (reduces firing).
- Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ions create action potentials in neurons.
Stages of a Seizure
- Aura (initial warning symptoms), tonic (muscle stiffness), clonic (muscle jerking), and postictal (recovery phase).
Signs of a Seizure
- Extended blank stare, unusual eye movements, rapid blinking, rolling eyes upward, unresponsiveness.
- Inability to pay attention, repetitive movements, body parts jerking, loss of consciousness, loss of body control, etc.
Types of Seizures - Diagram
- Illustrations distinguish generalized and partial seizures for visual understanding of their differing effects.
Types of Seizures - Detailed
- Focal seizures, including simple and complex partial seizures.
- Generalized seizures, including tonic-clonic, absence, myoclonic, clonic, and atonic seizures.
Generalized Seizures
- Excessive electrical activity in both cerebral hemispheres.
- Typically originates in brainstem or thalamus; affects the whole body.
Antiseizure Drugs
- Classifications such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, hydantoins, phenytoin-like agents, and succinimides.
- Drugs work by suppressing abnormal neuron firing.
- Some drugs work by influencing sodium and chloride ion influx while others enhance GABA (inhibitory signal).
Adverse Effects of Antiseizure Medications
- A variety of potential adverse effects, such as nausea, dizziness, hyponatremia, weight gain/loss, atxia, and rash. Noteable effects included in a table format(Drug, Mechanism, Adverse Effects).
Case Studies
- Illustrate real-life examples of seizure presentation, including typical characteristics. Example includes a 10-year-old experiencing a seizure.
Benign Rolandic Epilepsy
- Genetic, focal epilepsy with onset in childhood.
- Characterized by centrotemporal spikes (in EEG) that typically resolve.
- Hemifacial parasthesias.
- Motor seizures, speech arrest, or drooling, mostly during sleep or awakening.
References
- Various texts and resources are cited.
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