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Questions and Answers

What initiates the process of synaptic transmission at the axon terminal?

  • Decaying of the graded potential
  • Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors
  • Release of neurotransmitters from vesicles
  • Conclusion of the action potential (correct)

Which type of channel is primarily responsible for allowing the influx of calcium ions during neurotransmitter release?

  • Voltage-gated Na+ channels
  • Voltage-gated K+ channels
  • Ligand-gated ion channels
  • Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (correct)

What effect does the high concentration of Ca2+ in the presynaptic cell have?

  • Depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
  • Promotion of endocytosis
  • Inhibition of neurotransmitter release
  • Exocytosis of neurotransmitters (correct)

What is the role of neurotransmitters after they are released into the synaptic cleft?

<p>They bind to ligand-gated ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What outcome occurs if the summated graded potentials reach the neuron threshold potential?

<p>An action potential is generated (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the somatic nervous system?

<p>Control of voluntary motor action (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of PNS sensory neuron is responsible for detecting changes in temperature?

<p>Thermoreceptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord?

<p>Central Nervous System (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Electroreceptors are predominantly responsible for the reception of which type of stimuli?

<p>Light, electrical, and magnetic stimuli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurons are responsible for carrying signals from the periphery to the central nervous system?

<p>Sensory (Afferent) neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the autonomic nervous system control?

<p>Involuntary actions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of receptor is specifically responsive to pain stimuli?

<p>Nociceptors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The peripheral nervous system primarily consists of which of the following?

<p>Nerves branching off the central nervous system (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during repolarization of the membrane potential?

<p>K+ ions move out of the cell (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is hyperpolarization in the context of membrane potential?

<p>Membrane potential becomes more negative than resting potential (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase is it impossible to trigger a second action potential?

<p>Absolute Refractory Period (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the relative refractory period, what is the state of the Na+ channels?

<p>Na+ channels are closed but not inactivated (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily drives the repolarization of the membrane during an action potential?

<p>Opening of voltage-gated K+ channels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the state of K+ channels during the Absolute Refractory Period?

<p>K+ channels are open and repolarizing the membrane (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from voltage-gated Na+ channels closing during an action potential?

<p>Membrane potential begins to repolarize (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true about the refractory periods of action potentials?

<p>The relative refractory period allows for normal action potential generation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the sodium/potassium ATPase pump play after an action potential?

<p>It helps maintain the resting membrane potential (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase could potentially lead to a state where the membrane potential is less than -70 mV?

<p>Hyperpolarization Phase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure is primarily responsible for transferring sound from the middle ear to the inner ear?

<p>Stapes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the ear begins the transformation of sound waves into electrical impulses?

<p>Cochlea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which taste receptor cell is NOT one of the five primary taste types?

<p>Savory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the tympanic membrane?

<p>Transfers sounds from the outer ear to the middle ear (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure helps the cochlea to expand and vibrate?

<p>Round Window (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the ear is specifically responsible for carrying sound waves to the inner ear?

<p>Ossicles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the cochlea convert mechanical signals into neural signals?

<p>Using fluid and hair cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the semicircular canals in the inner ear?

<p>Convey information about movement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of olfactory receptor cells?

<p>Receive 'smell' molecules and send signals to the olfactory cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain do olfactory signals specifically transmit to?

<p>Olfactory cortex (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of sensory information do olfactory receptor cells mainly process?

<p>Smell (olfactory) information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the olfactory cortex?

<p>It processes olfactory signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way do olfactory receptor cells originally interact with their environment?

<p>By receiving 'smell' molecules (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about olfactory receptor cells?

<p>They transmit signals to the olfactory cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of molecular signals do olfactory receptor cells primarily process?

<p>Chemical signals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the signals received by olfactory receptor cells in the brain?

<p>They are processed and interpreted as smells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory system is primarily responsible for the sense of smell?

<p>Olfactory system (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are olfactory receptor cells located?

<p>In the nasal cavity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of neuron is responsible for detecting painful stimuli?

<p>Nociceptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?

<p>Sympathetic nervous system (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons differ in the sympathetic nervous system?

<p>Preganglionic neurons are long and postganglionic neurons are short (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is released by the postganglionic neuron in the sympathetic nervous system to target effector organs?

<p>Norepinephrine or epinephrine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary role does the parasympathetic nervous system serve in the body?

<p>Relaxing the body and promoting digestion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following effects is NOT associated with an active sympathetic nervous system?

<p>Relaxation of muscles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Acetylcholine is utilized as a neurotransmitter in which part of the autonomic nervous system?

<p>Both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of acetylcholinesterase in the autonomic nervous system?

<p>To hydrolyze and deactivate acetylcholine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an active parasympathetic nervous system have on heart rate?

<p>Decreases heart rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about ganglia is true?

<p>Ganglia contain synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sensory neurons detects changes in temperature?

<p>Thermoreceptors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the sympathetic nervous system sometimes referred to as the 'fight or flight' system?

<p>It activates bodily functions to escape a threat (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change is NOT induced by the sympathetic nervous system?

<p>Increased gastrointestinal activity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway initiates hormonal release from the adrenal medulla in the sympathetic nervous system?

<p>Preganglionic neuron to adrenal medulla (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Repolarization

The process of a cell membrane returning to its resting potential after depolarization.

Voltage-gated K+ channels

Channels that open in response to changes in membrane voltage, allowing potassium ions to flow out of the cell.

Hyperpolarization

A phase where the membrane potential is more negative than the resting potential.

Refractory Period

A period of time after an action potential where another action potential is difficult or impossible to trigger.

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Absolute Refractory Period

A portion of the refractory period where it's impossible to trigger another action potential.

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Relative Refractory Period

A portion of the refractory period where it's very difficult, but possible, to trigger another action potential.

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Olfactory Receptor Cells

Specialized cells in the nose that detect smell molecules and send signals to the brain.

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Olfactory Cortex

Part of the brain that processes smell information.

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Smell Molecules

Molecules that are detected by olfactory receptor cells, triggering the sense of smell.

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PNS Sensory Neurons

Nerves that carry signals from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).

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Mechanoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect mechanical pressure, stretch, or vibration.

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Nociceptors

Sensory receptors that detect pain.

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Thermoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect changes in temperature.

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Chemoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect chemical stimuli, like smell and taste.

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Electroreceptors

Specialized nerves that detect light, electrical, and magnetic fields.

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PNS Motor Neurons

Nerves that carry signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

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Somatic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

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Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls involuntary actions like heart rate and digestion.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves branching out of the CNS.

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Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system controlling involuntary actions, affecting smooth, cardiac muscles, and effector organs.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system, responsible for the 'fight or flight' response.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for 'rest and digest' functions.

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Ganglion

A cluster of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system where preganglionic and postganglionic neurons synapse.

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Preganglionic Neuron

Neuron originating from the central nervous system (CNS) and entering the ganglion.

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Postganglionic Neuron

Neuron originating from the ganglion and extending to effector organs.

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Sympathetic Ganglia (Effector Organ)

Short preganglionic neuron, long postganglionic neuron to the effector organ; acetylcholine as neurotransmitter between pre and post, Norepinephrine or epinephrine to the effector.

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Sympathetic Ganglia (Blood Stream)

Stimulates adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine or epinephrine into the bloodstream.

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Parasympathetic Ganglia

Long preganglionic neuron, short postganglionic neuron, acetylcholine as neurotransmitter.

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Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter used by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems in different parts of the system.

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Acetylcholinesterase

Enzyme that rapidly breaks down acetylcholine to halt signaling.

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Tympanic Membrane

A membrane that transfers sound from the outer ear to the middle ear.

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Middle Ear Ossicles

Three small bones (malleus, incus, stapes) that amplify and transfer sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.

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Stapes

The last ossicle; transfers sound vibrations from the middle ear to the inner ear via the oval window.

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Cochlea

Part of the inner ear that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals (transduction).

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Round Window

A membrane-covered opening in the inner ear, which allows the cochlea to vibrate.

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Semicircular Canal

Structure in the inner ear that helps detect head movement and balance.

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Taste Receptor Cells

Cells in the taste buds that detect different tastes (salty, sweet, bitter, sour, umami).

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Neurotransmitter Exocytosis

The release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft.

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Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels

Channels that open in response to changes in membrane voltage, allowing calcium ions to pass through.

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Synaptic Transmission

The process by which neurotransmitters are released from a neuron to a target cell, across a synapse.

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Synaptic Cleft

The small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons where neurotransmitters diffuse.

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Neurotransmitters (NTs)

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

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Action Potential

A rapid change in the membrane potential of a neuron, typically resulting in a neuron signal being transmitted to the next cell.

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Exocytosis

The process of releasing substances contained within vesicles from a cell by fusing the membranes of the vesicle and cell

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Presynaptic Neuron

The neuron sending the signal across a synapse.

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Postsynaptic Neuron

The neuron receiving the signal across a synapse.

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Graded Potential

An electrical potential that varies in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The portion of the nervous system consisting of nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.

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Study Notes

The Neuron

  • Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system
  • Key structures include the soma (cell body), dendrites (receiving signals), axon (sending signals), axon terminals (synaptic signal transmission), axon hillock (connection between soma and axon) , myelin sheath (fatty insulation for axon, increases speed), oligodendrocytes (CNS), Schwann cells (PNS), nodes of Ranvier (gaps in myelin), and saltatory conduction (action potential jumps across nodes).

Action Potentials: Part 1

  • Action potentials are rapid changes in membrane potential across a membrane
  • Governed by relative ion ratios in intracellular and extracellular spaces
  • Resting potential is ~-70mV maintained by Na+/K+ ATPases, which actively transport ions against their concentration gradient, requiring ATP cleavage.
  • Depolarization occurs when the membrane potential reaches -55mV threshold, voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to flow into the cell.
  • Neuron threshold potential is -55 mV
  • Steps of an Action Potential: resting state, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and return to resting state.

Action Potentials: Part 2

  • Repolarization: voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ out of the cell, returning the membrane potential to negative values
  • Absolute refractory period: impossible to trigger a second action potential due to Na+ channels inactivation
  • Relative refractory period: very difficult to trigger a second action potential due to membrane hyperpolarization (potential below -70mV) with Na+ channels closed but not inactivated.

Synaptic Transmission

  • Synaptic transmission is the transmission of chemical signals between neurons across a synapse
  • The synapse is the space between two neurons, including the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
  • Neurotransmitters (NTs) are messenger molecules released by the presynaptic neuron and received by the postsynaptic neuron at ligand-gated ion channels
  • Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs): depolarize the membrane (open Na+ channels)
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs): hyperpolarize the membrane (open K+ channels)
  • Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs at the axon hillock determines if an action potential is generated
  • Examples of neurotransmitters: Glutamate (main excitatory NT in the CNS), Dopamine (reward motivation), Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (fight or flight), Acetylcholine (muscle signaling).
  • Action potential finishes at the axon terminal causing voltage-gated Calcium channels to open allowing a large influx of Ca2+ into the presynaptic cell.
  • The high concentration of Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of NTs from transport vesicles
  • The NTs cross the synaptic cleft and bind to ligand-gated ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane.
  • Either an excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic graded potential results from this interaction
  • All newly formed graded potentials summate at the axon hillock

Central Nervous System: Part 1

  • The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
  • Embryonic development stages of the brain include forebrain (telencephalon and diencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (metencephalon and myelencephalon).
  • These regions develop into specific parts of the mature brain, some examples include: forebrain -> cerebrum, midbrain -> midbrain, hindbrain -> pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata

Central Nervous System: Part 2

  • The developed brain cortex has four lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal)
  • The cerebellum coordinates movement
  • Main components of the brainstem are the midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, and reticular formations
  • The limbic system is responsible for emotions, memory, learning, and motivation
  • Key components of the limbic system include the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala.
  • Spinal cord is the nervous tissue that connects the brain to the body
  • Meninges are three layers of protective membrane (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater)

Peripheral Nervous System: Part 1

  • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) extends from the CNS
  • PNS contains both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons
  • Sensory neurons are associated with mechanoreceptors, nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and electroreceptors.
  • Motor neurons associated with somatic nervous system; involved with voluntary actions of skeletal muscles and autonomic nervous system; involved in involuntary actions of smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and effector organs

Peripheral Nervous System: Part 2

  • Autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
  • Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems use acetylcholine
  • Ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies in the PNS.

Special Senses: Audition + Gustation

  • Audition (hearing): outer ear (takes in sound waves), middle ear (tympanic membrane transfers sound, three bony ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes for transferring and amplifying), inner ear (cochlea converting sound to neural signals via transduction)
  • Gustation (taste): taste receptor cells, signals sent to the thalamus and gustatory cortex

Special Senses: Vision + Olfaction

  • Vision: cornea (protects and focuses light), iris and pupil (control light entering), lens (focuses the image onto the retina), retina (contains photoreceptors rods and cones (low light and color, respectively), fovea (high acuity vision), optic nerve (transmits visual signals to brain), optic disc (blind spot), sclera (protective outer layer), choroid (vascular layer between sclera and retina)
  • Olfaction (smell): olfactory receptor cells that sense smell and send signals to olfactory cortex and thalamus

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