Nature vs Nurture: Human Development

Perspectives on Nature and Nurture

• Human development studies systematic changes and continuities in people.
• Lifespan development considers human development as a process studied scientifically.
• The lifespan perspective entails lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary and contextual development involving growth, maintenance and regulation of loss

Domains of Development

• Physical development involves growth of the body and brain, motor skills and health.
• Cognitive development includes learning, language, attention and creativity.
• Psychosocial development includes emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Key Concepts in Development

• Social construction is a concept or practice invented by a particular culture or society.
• The stability-change issue examines the degree to which early traits persist or change throughout life.
• Continuity-discontinuity focuses on whether development involves gradual change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
• Maturation refers to the unfolding of natural change
• Behavior genetics studies the extent to which genetic and environmental differences are responsible for trait differences.
• Heritability is variability in a trait linked to genetic differences among individuals.

Research Methods

• Gregor Mendel studied heredity in plants.
• Selective breeding involves breeding animals for a specific trait to determine inheritability.
• Genes contribute to traits like activity level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive in animals.
• Twin, adoption, and family studies are used in genetics research.
• Concordance rate measures the percentage of pairs where both members display a trait.

Genetic and Environmental Influences

• Genes are patterned to turn on and off throughout life (Epigenetics).
• Gene-environment interaction means the effects of genes depend on the environment experienced.
• Shared environmental influences are experiences that make individuals similar (e.g., parenting style).
• Nonshared environmental influences are unique experiences not shared with family members (e.g., parental favoritism).

Types of Gene-Environment Correlations

• Passive gene-environment correlation occurs when children's environments are influenced by their parents' genotypes.
• Evocative gene-environment correlation happens when a child's genotype evokes reactions from others.
• Active gene-environment correlation is when children's genotypes influence the environments they seek.
• Heredity includes inborn traits provided by parents (nature).
• The environment includes outside influences starting from conception throughout life (nurture).
• Individual differences include variations in gender, height, and health.

Context of Development

• Family includes nuclear or extended family structures.
• Socioeconomic status is a combination of economic and social factors like income, education, and occupation.
• Culture is a society's total way of life.
• Ethnic gloss is an over generalization that obscures variations.

Normative and Nonnormative Influences

• Normative influences are biological or environmental events affecting many people in a society similarly.
• Normative age-graded influences and normative history-graded influences are types of normative influences.
• A historical generation is a group that experiences an event at a formative time.
• An age cohort is a group of people born around the same time.
• Nonnormative influences are unusual events with major impacts on individual lives.
• Imprinting involves instinctively following the first moving object seen.

Periods of Development

• A critical period is a specific time when an event has a specific impact on development.
• Sensitive periods are times when a person is especially responsive to certain experiences.
• Plasticity is the modifiability of performance.
• A theory is a set of concepts that seek to describe, explain, and predict behavior.
• A hypothesis is an explanation that can be tested.

Historical Views

• John Locke proposed the idea of Tabula Rasa (blank slate).
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed children are born "noble savages."

Models of Development

• The mechanistic model views people as machines reacting to environmental input.
• The organismic model sees people as active organisms setting their own development in motion.
• Continuous change is gradual, while discontinuous change is abrupt.
• Quantitative change involves changes in amount while qualitative change involves new phenomena.
• Evolutionary psychology emphasizes adaptation and reproduction in shaping behavior.

APA Ethical Principles

• Beneficence and nonmaleficence: take care and do no harm, minimize harm
• Fidelity and responsibility: establish relationships of trust, uphold professional standards, cooperate with other professionals
• Integrity: promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness
• Justice: fairness and justice to all person to access and benefit
• Respect for people's rights and dignity: respect the dignity and worth of all people

PAP Ethical Principles

• Respect for dignity of persons and peoples: respect for all human beings, diversity, culture, and beliefs and provide free and informed consent, privacy, fairness, and justice
• Competent caring for the well-being of persons and peoples: work for their benefit and do no harm
• Integrity: honesty, truthfulness, open and accurate communication, appropriate professional boundaries, multiple relationships, and conflicts of interest
• Professional and scientific responsibility: contributing knowledge about human behavior

Research Ethics

• Researchers maintain high ethical standards.
• They provide accurate information and obtain approval before conducting research.
• Informed consent includes the research's purpose, procedures, right to withdraw, risks, benefits, etc.
• Researchers who study vulnerable populations should obtain informed consent from both the individual and guardian
• Researchers must seek individual's assent, provide explanation, consider their interest, and document consent.
• Permission is needed for recording images unless research involves naturalistic observations
• Consent must be obtained during debriefing, informed consent may be omitted only under specific conditions.

Research Conduct

• Excessive incentives for research participation should be avoided
• Deception should only be used if justified, and participants should be informed as soon as possible, with the right to withdraw.
• The safety of animal subjects should be protected, and discomfort minimized.
• Results of other's work should not be presented as one's own
• Take responsibility and provide credit only for the work that they have substantially contributed
• Data should not be withheld from competent professionals

Cultural Sensitivity in Research

• Researchers who study cultural influences must avoid biasing their perceptions of other groups.
• Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own group is superior to others.

Deception in Studies

• Studies involving deception should be avoided unless justified.
• Deception must be explained as early as possible, and participants can withdraw.

Basic Research Designs

• Descriptive research aims to observe and record behavior.
• Case studies involve studying a specific individual or group, offering in-depth information but limited generalization.
• Ethnographic studies describe the patterns of a society's way of life, helping to overcome cultural biases.
• Correlational studies determine relationships between variables without manipulation or random assignment.

Research Studies

• Lack of control over extraneous variables- cannot establish causation
• Studies can be used for many important issues that cannot be studied experimentally for ethical reasons
• Studies natural settings and multiple influences operating in those settings can be studied
• Experiment- controlled procedure which manipulated variables to learn how one affects another, establish cause-and-effect, permit replication and manipulation but may encounter ethical issues and can be artificial
• Quasi-Experiment- natural experiments; compares with those who have been accidentally assigned separate groups by circumstances of life and is correlational

Developmental Research Designs & Studies

• Cross-sectional designs assess children of different ages at ONE point of time, more economical, does not have cases of attrition or repeated testing, individual differences and trajectories may be obscured and can be affected by differing experiences of people born at different times
• Longitudinal designs study the SAME GROUP or PERSON more than once for even years apart, track patterns of continuity and change, can be time-consuming and expensive,repeated testing or attrition might occur or the turnover of research personnel, loss of funding, or development of new measures or methodologies
• Sequential Samples- data are collected on successive cross-sectional or longitudinal samples, track people of different ages offer time and allows researchers to separate age-related changes from cohort effects and provides more complete picture of development Drawbacks include time, effort and complexity that requires a huge number of participants and analysis of huge amounts of data over periods of years
• Cohort effects can affect dependent variable measures in studies due to study in its own age

Developmental Theories

• Psychosexual Theory by Sigmund Freud (3)- humans were born with a series of innate and biological driven that can shape later functioning, motives and emotional conflict shaped by earliest experiences with the family while also strongly believing in unconscious motivation
• Each have selfish and aggressive that is a negative view of nature as having the Id, Ego and Superego parts of the brain
• Health of personality is a balance of the id, ego, superego and psychological problems that an uneven supply of energy can cause
• Fixation- arrest in development that can show up in adult personality for any libido that stays with those parts like oral in the mouth to express anxiety and not to demand too much.
• Mouth- experience anxiety and the need to defend against it if denied oral gratification by to being fed on demand or being weaned too early that leads to oral fixations like alcoholism, smoking, overeating
• Anal- anus, toilet training era and Anal-Retentive with perfectionist and orderly as well and Anal-Expulsive for self-control, messy and careless
• Phallic- genitals, develop an incestuous desire for the parent of the other set and resolve conflicts through identification with it like having Oedipus complex or Electra complex
• Latency- sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies
• Genitals- genitals, repressed needs and conflicts and personality formed from unconscious childhood conflicts between urges of the id and requirements of life
• Defense mechanisms- ego adapts as devices to prevent the pushing back of un accepted impulses, can be in the following forms
• Regression- when a parent cannot be left alone at home they throw a tantrum
• Displacement- when a employee shouted at his child after being scolded by his boss
• Rationalization- people distort reality like something and make justifications

Psychosocial Theory by Erik Erikson

• Emphasizes the influence of society on the personality's development.
• Crisis- occurs when any form of negativity still remains like the imbalance throughout tendencies
• Each stage is successful to address the life events of which you have faced.
• Infancy- the crisis is a Trust of Vs. Mistrust and provides hope
• Toddlerhood- the crisis is a Autonomy Vs Shame/ Doubt that can show will-power
• Early Childhood- the crisis Is the Initiative vs. Guilt and determines what their purpose will be in life
• Middle and Late Childhood- crisis is the industry Vs inferiority and is the chance to feel their competence
• Adolescence- crisis starts Identity vs. Identify Diffusion that can show their fidelity or have confusion
• Young Adulthood- crisis starts Intimacy Vs. Isolation and shows love
• Middle Adulthood- the crisis is the Generativity vs. Stagnation and displays how care is like
• Late Adulthood- crisis involves Integrity vs. Despair that forms wisdom

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

• Intelligence helps organisms adapt, children construct understanding based on experiences with innate adaptation abilities
• Cognitive Growth occurs- Organization, Adaptation, and Equilibration
• Cognitive skills: Organization and tendency to create categories and Schemes as ways of organizing
• Children can assimilate that they do not know
• Accommodation in their cognitive structures

Sensorimotor Substages

• Use of Reflexes- exercise their inborn reflexes
• Primary Circular Reactions- repeat behavior
• Secondary Circular Reactions- repeat actions that bring interesting results and learn about causality
• Coordination off Secondary Schemes- they can attain goals and anticipate events
• Tertiary Circular Reactions- explore the world to see results for trial and error
• Mental Combinations- they can think before using actions and can use mental symbols and pretend stages
• Representation- can represent objects and actions in memory and Piaget believes those under 18 months cannot engage in Deferred Imitation
• Sensorimotor
• Deferred limitation is what behavior occurs and can have a lack of ability

Preoperational Developmental Stage

• Can think of something in absence, use symbolic function, have imaginary and fantasy plays as well
• Develops between ages of 2-4
• Intuitive Thought- uses primitive reasoning and what not by the ages of 4-7
• Logic- is something they cannot have
• They mentally link events that is transduction

Concrete Operational Thoughts

• Identifies who you are but can change appearance
• Animism- gives the idea that humans are not alive
• Centration- neglecting the tendency of aspects
• Cannot go to dimensions or ignore each other.

Social-Emotional Cognitive Development

• Conserves the fact that appearance is altered and has theory of mind.
• Theory of Mind- aware of understanding others -Allows society to predict one's actions

Formal Operational Development

• Children believe in inductive reasoning skills
• Follow principle to have same objects to be reversible and the ability to know one's numbers

Kohlberg Theory on Developmental Stages

• Adolescents enter the minds of what they become; the most highest formal operational stages.
• Cognitive development to what that person is like to the point they have
• Brain maturation expands the development of these personalities
• You can change alternatives, yet you can have self consciousness and the way you act to the others

Kohlberg Moral Development

• Level 1: Preconventional Morality (3-7 y/o)
• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation- avoid punishment
• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange- understanding what authorities say for one's self interest and conformity
• Level II- Conventional Morality- Good interpersonal Relationships to what you say

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model

• People do as what they tell you while people have the potential to react with their families so that they can continue what they are meant to fulfill

Early Childhood stages

• All it takes is imagination that can be determined without the help of an advocate whether or not to go to survive in life
• • Vygotsky Cognitive Development-
• Children's collaborative growth process shows and learns social interactions
• Scaffolding that support and help those to answer a question
• • Attachment by Ainsworth and Mahler-
• Reciprocal help provides high relational quality like sensitive parenting

attachment styles

• Secure- flexible and responsive
• Avoidant- insecure to respond when uncared for
• Ambivalent- anxious to cling but pull them away

Attachment and Awareness Stages

• Disorientated attachment due to stress and those with behavioral patterns
• Stranger anxiety- to not know someone
• Separation anxiety- the distressed when caregivers move

Mahler stages

• Stages are focused on development physically and mentally which can adapt
• Mahler separation that shows internal processes

Developmental Stages

• Identity formation
• Identity achievement leading to result and exploring to what this person meant

Learning process

• Learning theories based- behavior can predict one's responses with feelings one can use

• • The Wilson Evolutionary Theory

• Genetic and adaptive behavior and survival values Developmental-

• Lifelong period Multidimensional and interactive on any dimension

Physical Factors

• Chromosomal genetic abnormalities whether with gender, hormones transfusions which can treat, operate and have special devices
• Development- can have effects of labor and can need certain medication and can be prevented if it takes place earlier
• Factors due to alcohol, stress and etc- teratogen can occur which can prevent the developing of the growth Hi :) this reviewer is FREE! u can share it with others but never sell it okay? let's help each other <3 -aly