Naturalism: Methods, Application, and Challenges

Week 1: Naturalism

• Naturalism assumes reality can be studied through scientific methods, requiring acceptance of naturalist assumptions for findings to be valid.
• Realism assumes the world exists independently of our experiences
• Empiricism enables understanding the world via observation and reflection, gaining knowledge through real-world data collection and analysis.
• Naturalists believe the world follows patterns, making discrimination visible and measurable through specific social structures.
• Naturalists use experiments, observations, and hypothesis testing to uncover cause-and-effect relationships, relying on the correspondence theory of truth, where facts exist independently of human interpretation.
• Naturalism assumes facts exist independent of morality, distinguishing a sociologist's role as studying discrimination, not making moral judgments.
• Challenges to naturalism include whether social phenomena are ontologically similar to natural phenomena
• The Thomas Theorem states that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences, so social sciences deal with human interpretation, thus causality is less straightforward.
• Naturalism assumes the universe operates in an ordered way, similar to a mechanical clock: concept of the clockwork universe
• John Locke's 'Tabula Rasa' states people are born as blank slates gaining everything from sensory experience, but humans are born with biological traits that shape understanding.
• Theory-laden observation means our understanding of reality is always shaped by perspective and interests, and objective observation is hard to separate from interpretation.
• Human life is deeply connected to meaning, but natural science does not focus on meaning-making.
• Meaning is crucial in sociology as an object of study focusing on how people create and interpret meaning, and the researcher's perspective is influenced by their own background and beliefs, so context research is important.
• Unlike physics or chemistry, sociology deals with human experiences, interpretations, and meanings, which are more complex than physical laws.

Week 1: Constructivism

• Constructivism challenges the idea of objective observation, arguing that human reason, interpretation, and social interactions actively shape knowledge.
• Race is socially constructed through history, like colonialism and slavery in the US, and organizing society around it leads to real-life consequences.
• In constructivism, the focus is also on how the researcher brings their own perspectives, assumptions, and biases.
• Rationalists believe knowledge comes from logical reasoning in the human mind
• Empiricists believe all knowledge comes from sensory experience, and the mind is just a processing tool.
• Kant states that we don't just passively observe the world-we interpret it based on pre-existing mental categories (a priori categories/transcendental idealism).
• Kant says our minds are not blank slates, meaning they actively shape how we understand the world.
• Kant says that there is a difference between reality itself (noumena) and our perception of it (phenomena).

Week 1: Philosophical Debate Implications for Science

• Natural laws are mental constructs that help make sense of reality
• Knowledge is shaped by both perception and reasoning: became a core idea in constructivism.
• Berger and Luckmann approach believed it was empirical (based on observation), like naturalists, however, they did not examine how their own perspectives influenced their research.
• Bourdieu argues that sociologists are influenced by their own social backgrounds and academic environments.
• Bourdieu calls the academics assumption that ordinary people think like academics the 'Scholastic Fallacy' and calls for a 'reflexive sociology' i.e. emphasize that researchers must critically examine how their own social background, biases, and academic environment influence their research.

Week 1: Definitions of Theory

• Understanding sociological theories can be challenging because sociology includes many different perspectives from backgrounds, beliefs, and approaches to knowledge.
• In science, theory is more strictly defined as: A scientific theory is an explanation of a natural phenomenon based on repeated experiments and follows the strict protocol of the scientific method.
• Science aims to explain observations identifying causes behind observed phenomena and predict future occurrences based on these explanations.
• Explanandum: What needs to be explained (eg why people migrate).
• Explanans: What provides the explanation (eg economic inequality).
• A scientific law is a general statement about how the world behaves under certain conditions, having an "if-then" structure.
• Experimental laws describe patterns we can observe, while theoretical laws (theories) go beyond direct observations, explaining why something happens.
• Theory deals with abstract ideas rather than just direct observation, but there is no single definition that all sociologists agree on.
• Middle-range theories are logically connected sets of ideas that help us understand patterns in society.
• Theory₁: A general series of logically connected propositions about the relationship between two or more variables.
• Theory₂: Explanations of specific unique social phenomena, such as war or revolution.
• Theory₃: Explanations of social phenomena from an interpretative approach aimed at understanding lived experiences.
• Theory₄: The study of the theory itself, examining the origins and underlying assumptions of certain theories or schools of thought.
• Theory₅: A worldview and the underlying ontological and epistemological assumptions
• Theory₆: A subtype of theory 5 that has a fundamentally normative component.
• Theory₇: This approach addresses the empirical issues that sociologists encounter and is a practical tool.
• We must recognize that 'theory' has multiple meanings to reduce misunderstandings with sociological explanations.

Week 2: Max Weber Sociology - Overview

• Max Weber (1864–1921) wrote extensively on the role of science and objectivity, how religious beliefs influenced economic behavior, and foundational text in sociology and is important to methodology, social action, and scientific inquiry as they shaped modern sociology.
• Weber defined sociology as a science concerning itself with the interpretative understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences.
• Behavior: A mechanical response to a stimulus (eg reflex actions).
• Action: A response that includes thought and meaning.
• Social action: Actions influenced by the behavior of others (eg voting, protesting).
• Weber believed sociology should focus on social action, understanding why people act the way they do based on their motivations and social context, and the topic of the Methodenstreit, which was debated between positivists (naturalistic view) and subjectivists (constructivist view).
• Weber rejected both extremes and proposed a middle ground i.e. history consists of unique events, not governed by strict laws, but we can still develop theoretical concepts to understand these events. This approach reflects Kantian Constructivism.
• Weber introduced the concept of Verstehen, which means "understanding" in German, requiring putting researchers in the shoes of their subjects to understand their motivations.
• Weber saw Verstehen as essential but not enough on its own, requiring both Verstehen and causal explanation as in understand motivations and identify patterns and probabilities in social action.
• To connect individual experiences (Verstehen) with general social patterns, Weber developed the concept of ideal types as mental constructs that simplify reality by highlighting key elements to help sociologists systematically compare societies clarifying causal relationships.
• Weber strongly believed in objectivity so researchers should not let their values influence their findings, and he argued that professors should keep their political opinions out of the classroom because of power dynamics between teachers and students.
• Marx believed values and facts are interconnected thus science should change society while Weber believed science should describe and explain, which relates to Hume's problem of Descriptive statements and Prescriptive statements.

Week 2: Max Weber Sociology - Causality & Rationalization

• Weber agreed that sociology should give causal explanations by a probability statement with a multi-causal approach.
• According to Max Weber, rationalization is the process by which traditional ways of thinking, acting, and organizing society are replaced by calculated, efficient, and rule-based methods, which is only one aspect of modernization that also includes advancements in science and technology, decline of religious influence, rise of democracy and individualism, and expansion of colonialism.
• Weber categorized human actions based on the motivations behind them, including means and value rationality, and affectual and traditional action.
• Means-end rationality refers to an action that is based on calculating the most efficient way to achieve a specific goal, Value rationality refers to deeply held values which is more important than the means.
• Weber argued that modernization led to the dominance of means-end rationality in all aspects of life, gradually replacing other types of social actions.
• Ritzer applies the principles of calculability, efficiency, predictability, technology replacing humans, and control over uncertainties to fast food restaurants, resulting in environmental damage as everything becomes standardized.
• Traditional authority is based on long-standing customs and traditions and involved personal loyalty (eg monarchies and tribal leaders).
• Charismatic authority is based on the personal qualities of a leader ie revolutionaries such as MLK or religious leaders such as Jesus, but it is unstable because it depends on the individual.
• Legal-rational authority is based on rules, laws, and bureaucracies according to Weber, it is the dominant form in modern society, leading to bureaucratization.
• Standardization and codification which operates based on formal rules and regulations that are clearly documented, has a legal framework, separating private and professional life, specialization and domain-specific rules, no room for improvisation, has two faces, one positive in that bureaucracies coordinate large groups, and one negative in that bureaucracies can become rigid losing one's personal freedom, called "iron cage of bureaucracy".
• Weber also says that capitalist economies, are deeply connected to rationalization: profits, rationally calculating how to maximize profits, focusing on long-term profit-making and aligning with means-ends rationality.
• According to weber, capitalism has two sides (structural: based on profit and investment, a mental side: attitude to re invest and avoid spending. Weber says that Calvininst beliefs unintentionally helped develop capitalism: success= evidence of being chosen by God, however they were never to be enjoyed, as shown in hard work shaped the spirit of capitalism.

Week 3: Sociology - Overview of Approaches

• Scientistic Approach (naturalist) includes functionalism, exchange theory, and rational choice theory, assumes a real world exists with observable structures, aims to make general, testable, and policy-applicable statements and emphasizes falsification using quantitative methods and scepticism of Marxist theory,
• Interpretative Approach (constructivist) includes phenomenology and symbolic interactionism focusing on how people construct reality through interaction.
• Historical-Comparative Approach (middle ground) combines elements of both and is often used in historical sociology and comparative research.

Week 3: Functionalism & Parsons

• Functionalism asks why do societies stay stable over time?
• Functionalists view society as a system made up of interrelated parts (subsystems) that has a function that contributes to the overall stability of society.
• Causal questions ask Why, while functionalist questions ask what.
• A "consensus" view is that classical functionalists assumed that all social structures contribute positively to society, which was challenged by later functionalists.
• Parsons believed social action is motivated by values, shared values create social cohesion, society is always trying to maintain equilibrium, the 4 systems: the behavioral, personality, cultural, and social systems.
• A society stays in balance because individuals internalize cultural values (socialization) and institutions enforce norms when people deviate.
• Parson identified Pattern variables that give direction how people in that society should act, from Tönnies: Gemeinschaft vs Gesellschaft, and Durkheim: Mechanic vs Organic Society.
• Parsons categorizes how people behave in traditional vs modern societies using 5 binary pattern variables: Traditional expressive with Ascription, Diffuseness, Affectivity, Particularism, and Collectivity - versus Modern instrumental with Achievement, Specificity, Neutrality, Universalism, and Self-interest.
• Robert K. Merton argues that Parsons explicitly assumes that every subsystem is problematic says that Parsons' theory are not testable with empirical research.
• Merton said that Parsons assumes all parts of society work in harmony, everything in society services a function, all parts of society are essential in the AGIL scheme.
• But to be aware of these assumptions, that not all parts exist in harmony, all are necesary, they could be replaced, and instead of accepting these ideas as true, that more test through research, to avoid conservative view.
• Manifest functions are the intended functions involved, while Latent functions are the unintended.
• Once you have a conception of these theories and their functions, it is easy to apply the 'analytical' step and identify if the particular function is for a specific party.

Week 3: Merton & Theories on Societal Deviance

• First, 1. define the item under consideration and its functions and aims of people involved. Then, 3. define the objective functions then. Then, 4. Identify on what system the function is exercised, followed by step 5. to understand how, concluding at 6. which defines functional groups for whom the norms of the system are functional and dysfunctional for.
• Theory of Deviance aims to understand the correlation between rules and deviant behaviour. Societal conditions may result in pushing people to deviate, based on the system of structure. Merton builds on Durkheim's concept, saying a lack of rules isn't simply a lack of rules, but a consequence of mismatching societal goals with methods available (which may be intentional). Therefore, different 'types' emerge due to the acceptance and rejection of available methods: conformitists, innovators, ritualists, retreatists, rebels.

Week 3: Exchange, Rationalist Theory & Coleman

• Exchange and rational choice theories is the study of how decisions of individuals shape their respective worlds
• It is assumed in this topic that people are rational, work like an exchange, and exist only as collections from individuals.
• It touches on the topic of Sociological Traditions as Exchange and rational choice theory fall under liberalism, which focuses on individual action.
• It opposes functionalism and marxist theory, and focuses specifically at what is being done at the individuals level - methodological individualism explains that all societal change starts at individuals alone, and nothing is of value above that.
• George C. Homans believed that sociology should focus on general principles of human behaviour which is in turn testable. He used the scientific aspects of individuals, not society as a whole.
• 1. The success proposition says that the most common result of a persons' actions should result in how likely the success of their later actions are.
• 2. the stimulus proposition argues that if you receive the same stimuli from similar actions, the likely actions are more predictable.
• 3. the value proposition states how important we see the reward as
• 4. The deprivation-satiation proposition argues that if you aren't receiving that reward, no other reward matters.
• 5. Lastly the - the aggression-approval proposition consist of reward from anticipated behaviour should be the focus as well.
• Rational choice theory expands on exchange theory by saying that people make calculated choices to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs, known as Coleman Boat.
• It also says we can identify 4 levels in an individuals decision: a macro-level influence (say policy causes a micro-level individual response, causing effect. That effect over time, can result in even further outcome. This 'boat travels' from what is macro to micro.

Week 3: Causality, Statistical & Scientific Approach

• Mainstream sociology's naturalist approach deals with the micro-macro problem by studying causal relationships - how one event leads to another.
• Association is when two things occur at the same time, versus Causation, when one thing directly causes another in a process.
• If we establish phenomenon first, we might be able to establish regularities because people act rationally based on constraints and available resources.
• There is a differences in statistical vs scientific models. Statistical can only show correlations between variables, but not causation. In contrast, scientific models require a clear hypothesis with a mechanistic explanation - they are quantitative and theory driven. Therefore to avoid 'false claims', you must connect the two.
• Analytical sociology challenges the view that variables alone are the study of how the individuals interact and are responsible for change. Change is only shaped through individual's attributes and relationships, and therefore that produces social change. Hedstrom believes it is the key to sociology.
• Hedström and Bearman explain social change by combining both individual actions and relationships in what is defined as structural individualism, and the importance of micro and the importance of what they bring to the macro system.

Week 4: Substantialist Approaches & Concepts

• Aim is to clarify different sociological approaches in the concepts of theory (naturalism - constructivism, substantiallist - relational thinking)
• Aristotle's question was "what does it mean to 'be'?", and therefore created his 'categories' which were the attempt to classify everything. Reality consists of individual objects and beings which he dubbed, 'primary substances'.
• There were 10 groups, however one was to be focused on, the 'substance'. Accidental factors such as "colour" are not essential to whether an being, 'is', with it's essential factors. Rather, those parts can be separated from essential factors, known as accidental-essential.
• Substantist thinking is a sociological view that assumes society is made of clearly defined fixed entities, (individuals and classes or etc.) which create a stable, and unchangeable properties.
• There are different levels to this specific thinking - you either see people acting on their own (selfish theory), or people are pre-defined based on a system (rational actor).
• You can also simply recognize interactions as a result, where people interact regardless, however their specific attributes do not change.

Week 4: Concepts, Quantitative Approach & Issues

• You also find 'stable' essential properties if you look at qualitative sociology (variable-based), where the 'change of numbers' does not affect pre-defined entities. Some studies treat class and race as fixed essential properties.
• Critiques say it makes life rigid.
• Substantitalist matter helps in categorizing, although it runs the risk of oversimplifying what humans are capable of.
• Relational approach says that identities aren't fixed traits, and arise through societal interactions.

Week 4: Relationship Approaches & Challenges

• Relationship thinking does not fix societal factors as 'things', rather processes that evolve and exist on their own.
• Emirbayer contrasts by introducing "trans-action" rather than predefined states. Meaning, we shouldn't assume pre-defined actions, such as a teacher, friend, but see how those interact in terms of dynamics themselves
• the challenges can be summarised: everything isn't so predictable which creates radical relativism, snapshots in time dont give enough space to capture a relationship, it is often hard to avoid labels or essences.

Week 5: Sociology Overview

• Social network theory treats relationships as the core subject of sociological research with different types: ego, whole, directed, undirected.
• Terms: node/vertex, edge/tie, dyad, triad, geodesic/diameter, isolate.
• Relationships form through homophily (selection and social influence), transitivity, reciprocity.
• Granovetter's weak tie theory has info that weak ties act as bridges between different networks and spread info. Burt says structural holes exist when groups are not directly connected, but information still flows.

Week 5: Importance in Research & Knowledge

• Ego network is used in general statistical research where individuals are surveyed about their connections, but relationships are not always independent, instead requiring more technical analysis.
• Knowledge can be shaped by: power, funding, status and academic field.
• Sociology of Knowledge says social conditions shape how knowledge is defined and not purely objective or empirical, and must be studied by the way its' produced, and a way to acquire more of it. It relates to both discipline, the history, and different view on enlightenment periods.
• View is positivistic meaning there is an objective opinion, however, there is another which says there is no way pure objective.
• By unmasking the knowledge, marx says with 'false-consciousness', there is an exploitation of power, that the goal is to unmask that distortion for change. There is also understanding of knowledge which requires institutionalization (normalized repeated actions), also related to power.
• These can be studied and followed as habits, and then grow as an institution.
• Science is a type of knowledge with that said, scientists would like to believe its' better.

Week 5: Reflexivity

• Bourdieu tries to argue for reflexivity, where he focuses on what shapes history (3 levels: social bias, academic field, intellectual bias.)

Week 6: Theoretical Concepts

• Postcolonialism theory is a relatively new section of study, that seeks to study, critique, and shift colonial views: these shifts are largely focused on eurocentric perspectives, and marginalizing former colonized groups. This is not new - but has had people resisting pre and during the theory's time.
• Related to: colonialism, decolonization, and postcolonialism.

Week 6: Early Colonialism & Subaltern India

• Colonialism can be described as a foreign system which benefits economic value of those ruling above the colonized.
• Decolonization generally always happened in post war periods that had different impacts such as the breakup of world power and the creation of nation-states. However often times, control over economic and legal structure remains.
• Subaltern India studies focus on marginalized india, which at that time had indirect rule. These were the underclasses who did not directly have power.

Week 6: Historic Marxism

• Most of this was inspired by marx, but rather analyzed how the shape up and down shaped each factor.
• Marx did believe in clear progression that came because of capitalism from the west, however the east did not show a history of the same events as a result of revolution and the burgeousie (bourgeoisie and capitalist class cooperated with colonial rulers) which is why the history is different with what western society is based on and the theories applied.

Week 6: Theory on Humanism

• There is an additional view which is: western ideals believe people tend to behave rationally, which isn't always necessarily true.
• This is argued against: Western ideas use this rhetoric to 'civilize' the people of non-western origin as they were not rational, which justified colonizers and power. Western thought creates 'otherness'.
• There is a concept of Descartes' view, where the world focused on rational, thinking subjects - highest knowledge. Which has a Postcolonial result, it can cause single-lens thinking. It ignores other gains of knowledge in non-western countries.