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Questions and Answers
What hormone is present in the urine of pregnant women that is used for infertility treatment?
Which type of algae is a source of carrageenan?
What are alginates primarily used for in the food and pharmaceutical industries?
Which of the following is a microalga used in skin care products?
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What is agar used for?
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What classification is given to multicellular plants growing in salt or fresh water?
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What compounds are known to be produced by micro-algae?
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Which of the following is NOT a benefit associated with algae?
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Which part of the plant Digitalis purpurea is used for obtaining Digitoxin and Digoxin?
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What type of drug is morphine, obtained from Papaver somniferum?
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Which source provides strychnine, a CNS stimulant?
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What is the primary active property obtained from the leaves of Eucalyptus?
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Which of the following is a purgative obtained from the fruit of a plant?
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Reserpine, a hypotensive agent, is derived from which root?
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Which of the following is an example of a drink made from flowers?
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What type of drug primarily comes from inorganic sources?
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Which of the following are liquid alkaloids?
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What feature do glycosides generally have?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of saponins?
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What is a common property of resins?
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How do tannins affect mucous membranes?
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What is the primary toxin found in psilocybin mushrooms?
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What do hydrolyzed glycosides convert into?
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Which statement is true about oleo-resins?
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Which inorganic agent is classified as an emetic?
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What is a common use of iodine?
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What is true about sapotoxins?
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Which of the following is an antiseptic?
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What mineral is used in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia?
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What is the primary use of magnesium sulphate?
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Which non-metal is commonly used as a disinfectant?
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What is a known property of selenium when used in products?
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What property do microalgae like Chlorella and Spirulina not have?
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Which of the following fatty acids are considered long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids (vlcPUFAs)?
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What is a primary application of carotenoids produced by micro-algae?
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How are heavy metals commonly removed from wastewater using microalgae?
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What is one benefit of using transgenic plants in the production of vlcPUFAs?
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What substance in red and green algae is known to control inflammation?
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Which of the following is NOT a property attributed to microalgae?
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Which crop has recently been used to produce DHA through genetic engineering?
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Study Notes
Natural Sources of Drugs
- Drugs can be sourced from various origins but mostly from plants, animals, minerals, marine life, and microorganisms.
- Plants are a vast source of drugs, and nearly every part of a plant can be used, like leaves, stems, bark, fruits, and roots.
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Leaves:
- Digitalis purpurea leaves are the source of Digitoxin and Digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides.
- Eucalyptus leaves produce Eucalyptus oil, often found in cough syrups.
- Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
- Atropa belladonna leaves contain atropine.
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Flowers:
- Papaver somniferum, the opium poppy, yields morphine.
- Roses offer rose water, a traditional tonic.
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Fruits:
- Senna pods provide anthracine, a purgative used for constipation.
- Calabar beans are a source of physostigmine, a cholinomimetic agent.
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Seeds:
- Nux vomica seeds produce strychnine, a CNS stimulant.
- Castor seeds provide castor oil.
- Calabar beans also produce Physostigmine, a cholinomimetic drug.
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Roots:
- Ipecacuanha roots give Emetine, used as a vomiting inducer in cases of accidental poisoning and as an amoebicide.
- Rauwolfia serpentina roots are the source of reserpine, used to lower blood pressure.
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Animal Sources:
- Pregnant women's urine gives human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), used to treat infertility.
- Sheep thyroid glands are a source of thyroxine, used to treat hypertension.
- Cod liver is a source of vitamins A and D.
- Anterior pituitary glands produce pituitary gonadotropins used in infertility treatments.
- Animal blood is used to create vaccines.
- Stomach tissue contains digestive juices like pepsin and trypsin historically used for peptic diseases, but now replaced with newer drugs.
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Marine Sources:
- Algae, the chlorophyll-containing organisms, have over 20,000 species.
- Macroalgae, also known as "seaweeds", are multicellular plants found in both salt and fresh water.
- Based on pigmentation, algae are classified into:
- Brown seaweed (Phaeophyceae)
- Red seaweed (Rhodophyceae)
- Green seaweed (Chlorophyceae)
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Applications of marine sources:
- Hydrocolloids: Alginates from brown algae, composed of D-mannuronic acid and L-guluronic acid, are used in food and pharmaceutical industries as stabilizers for emulsions and suspensions. Carrageenans from red algae are used in food, textile, and pharmaceutical industries.
- Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics: Microalgae produce bioactive compounds like antibiotics, algicides, and toxins. Antibiotic compounds with unique chemical diversity are isolated from algae. Many produce neurotoxic and hepatotoxic compounds. Chlorella, Arthrospira (Spirulina), and agar are used in skin care, sun protection, and hair care products. Agar is also used as a thickener and water-binding agent as well as an antioxidant.
- High value oils: Long-chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids (vlcPUFAs) like eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA) are nutritionally significant. The vlcPUFAs in fish oil originate from marine microalgae consumed by the fish.
- Colourants: Microalgae produce carotenoids, with over 40 carotenes and xanthophylls characterized. Xanthophyll like lutein is used in drug and cosmetic colouring. Phycobillins or phycobiliproteins, water-soluble pigments, are used as fluorescent markers in cell biology and as colorants for food and cosmetic products.
- Removal of heavy metals: Algal biomass is used as a cost-effective biomaterial to remove toxic heavy metals from wastewater.
- Food Supplement: Microalgae, rich in proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, pigments, and enzymes, are used as food supplements commercially.
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Microorganisms:
- Psilocybin and psilocin (cause CNS arousal and hallucinations) - the main ‘toxins’ in psilocybin mushrooms (genus Psilocybe).
- Arabitol (causes gastrointestinal irritation in some people).
- Bolesatine, a toxin found in Boletus satanas.
- Ergotamine (deadly: affects the vascular system, can lead to loss of limbs and death): an alkaloid found in the genus Claviceps.
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Inorganic Sources:
- Divided into metals and non-metals. Metalloids, displaying intermediate properties, fall under the metal category.
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Metals:
- Agent | Use
- Magnesium sulphate | Purgative
- Calcium carbonate | Astringent
- Copper sulphate | Emetic
- Ferrous sulphate | Haematinic
- Zinc sulphate | Astringent
- Bismuth subnitrate | Antiseptic
- Lead acetate | Local sedative, antiseptic
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Non-metals:
- Agent | Use
- Iodine (Pot.iodide) | Expectorant
- Bromine (Pot.bromide) | Sedative
- Hydrogen peroxide | Antiseptic
- Sulphur | Insecticide, disinfectant
- Carbon (charcoal) | Adsorbent
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Mineral Sources:
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Metallic and Non-metallic sources:
- Iron is used in treating iron deficiency anemia.
- Mercurial salts are used in Syphilis treatment.
- Zinc is used as a zinc supplement. Zinc oxide paste is used for wounds and eczema.
- Iodine is antiseptic and used as a supplement.
- Selenium is an antioxidant.
- Gold salts are used to treat rheumatoid arthritis.
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Miscellaneous Sources:
- Fluorine has antiseptic properties.
- Borax possesses antiseptic properties as well.
- Selenium, as selenium sulphide, is used in anti-dandruff shampoos.
- Petroleum is used to make liquid paraffin.
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Metallic and Non-metallic sources:
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Synthetic Sources of Drugs:
- Drugs are prepared synthetically or semi-synthetically in laboratories.
- Numerous drugs originally obtained from plants are now synthesized synthetically.
- Liquid alkaloid: Arecholine, nicotine, lobeline
- Semi-synthetic/synthetic: Apomorphine, homatropine
- Animal alkaloid: Adrenaline.
Organic Drug Classifications
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Glycosides:
- Non-nitrogenous compounds with sugar attached to a non-sugar part by an ether linkage.
- Neutral in reaction, containing C, H, and O, some with additional N and few S.
- Do not form salts with acids.
- Soluble in alcohol, less so in water, and insoluble in ether.
- Some are highly active, while others are inert.
- Hydrolyzed by acids and yield aglycone (non-sugar part).
- Names usually end with -in.
- Examples: Digitoxin, scillarin, digoxin.
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Saponins:
- Plant glycosides with strong frothing properties.
- Non-nitrogenous substances, primarily glycosides.
- Soluble in water and form froth when shaken.
- Hydrolyze into sugar and aglycone (sapogenin).
- Toxic saponins are called sapotoxins.
- Examples: Digitonin, senegin, glycyrrhizin.
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Resins:
- Rosin-like substances, oxidative products of volatile oils.
- Produced by certain plants.
- Mixtures of various substances like acids, alcohols, or esters.
- Secretions of plant tissues, bitter, and amorphous solids.
- Insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, etc.
- Form resin soaps when mixed with alkalies.
- Examples: Resin of Jalap, podophyllin.
- Oleo-resins: Semisolid mixtures of resins and volatile oils, e.g., crude turpentine.
- Gum-resins: Mixtures of resins and gums, e.g., asafoetida.
- Balsams: Oleoresins containing benzoic acid or cinnamic acid, e.g., benzoin, balsam of Peru.
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Tannins:
- Non-nitrogenous phenol derivatives.
- Characterized by their astringent action on mucous membranes.
- Found primarily in leaves and bark of plants.
- Irritant or astringent action.
- Form a blue color reaction with iron.
- Precipitate metallic salts, alkaloids, and proteins.
- Some are glycosides linked to sugar.
- Example: Tannic acid obtained from nut galls.
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Description
Explore the various origins of drugs, focusing on natural sources such as plants, animals, minerals, and microorganisms. This quiz delves into specific examples, including cardiac glycosides from leaves and morphine from flowers. Test your knowledge about the medicinal properties derived from nature's bounty.
