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Questions and Answers
Why did the French withdraw from NATO headquarters in 1966?
Why did the French withdraw from NATO headquarters in 1966?
- Following a disagreement with other NATO member states over military strategy
- As a response to the UK's rejection from the European Economic Community
- Because they were unhappy with the leadership of the US and UK in NATO (correct)
- Due to financial constraints and budgetary concerns
What did De Gaulle's action in 1966 likely imply about France's commitment to NATO?
What did De Gaulle's action in 1966 likely imply about France's commitment to NATO?
- France would abandon its commitment to aid fellow members in case of an attack
- France might pursue a defense policy different from other Western powers (correct)
- France would refuse to participate in NATO's military operations
- France would reduce its military spending and contribution to NATO
Why did Lyndon Johnson respond calmly to De Gaulle's action?
Why did Lyndon Johnson respond calmly to De Gaulle's action?
- Because he didn't want to escalate the situation into a diplomatic crisis
- Because he was relieved that France was leaving NATO
- Because he believed it was a temporary setback
- Because he respected France's sovereignty and decision-making (correct)
What was De Gaulle's main concern about the UK joining the European Economic Community?
What was De Gaulle's main concern about the UK joining the European Economic Community?
What was the consequence of De Gaulle's veto on the UK's membership in the EEC?
What was the consequence of De Gaulle's veto on the UK's membership in the EEC?
When did France return to integrated NATO command?
When did France return to integrated NATO command?
Why did De Gaulle time his action in 1966?
Why did De Gaulle time his action in 1966?
What was the administrative consequence of France's withdrawal from NATO headquarters?
What was the administrative consequence of France's withdrawal from NATO headquarters?
What was the primary concern of de Gaulle regarding the EEC in 1965?
What was the primary concern of de Gaulle regarding the EEC in 1965?
Why did de Gaulle veto British accession to the EEC in 1967?
Why did de Gaulle veto British accession to the EEC in 1967?
What was the outcome of the 1969 national referendum on constitutional reform in France?
What was the outcome of the 1969 national referendum on constitutional reform in France?
What was a consequence of the creation of new independent states in Asia and Africa?
What was a consequence of the creation of new independent states in Asia and Africa?
Who succeeded de Gaulle as President of France in 1969?
Who succeeded de Gaulle as President of France in 1969?
What was a key factor that contributed to a more multipolar world?
What was a key factor that contributed to a more multipolar world?
What was the duration of Pompidou's presidency?
What was the duration of Pompidou's presidency?
Who became President of France in 1981, succeeding Giscard d'Estaing?
Who became President of France in 1981, succeeding Giscard d'Estaing?
What was the main goal of France's foreign policy under de Gaulle?
What was the main goal of France's foreign policy under de Gaulle?
What was the term of Mitterrand's presidency?
What was the term of Mitterrand's presidency?
What was the result of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command structure in 1966?
What was the result of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command structure in 1966?
What was the significance of the conference of Bandung?
What was the significance of the conference of Bandung?
What is the term used to describe the situation where a President and Prime Minister are from different parties?
What is the term used to describe the situation where a President and Prime Minister are from different parties?
Why did France veto British candidacy to the EEC in 1963?
Why did France veto British candidacy to the EEC in 1963?
What was the result of France's boycott of the EEC in 1965?
What was the result of France's boycott of the EEC in 1965?
Why did France resist and try to maintain a dialogue with the Soviet Union?
Why did France resist and try to maintain a dialogue with the Soviet Union?
What was a major event in 1967 that caught the attention of the two superpowers?
What was a major event in 1967 that caught the attention of the two superpowers?
What was the sentiment towards China during the Johnson administration?
What was the sentiment towards China during the Johnson administration?
What was a major shift in US foreign policy during the Nixon presidency?
What was a major shift in US foreign policy during the Nixon presidency?
What was the event that marked the beginning of improved US-China relations?
What was the event that marked the beginning of improved US-China relations?
What was the result of the changing diplomatic landscape in 1979?
What was the result of the changing diplomatic landscape in 1979?
What was a major concern for the superpowers in response to China's growing nuclear capacity?
What was a major concern for the superpowers in response to China's growing nuclear capacity?
What was the tone of US-China relations before Nixon's presidency?
What was the tone of US-China relations before Nixon's presidency?
What was the result of the Nixon administration's policy towards China?
What was the result of the Nixon administration's policy towards China?
What was significant about the Summit being held at all?
What was significant about the Summit being held at all?
What was the main limitation of the ABM Treaty?
What was the main limitation of the ABM Treaty?
Why did the Soviet Union have more ICBMs allowed under the Interim Agreement?
Why did the Soviet Union have more ICBMs allowed under the Interim Agreement?
What was the purpose of the SALT I Agreement?
What was the purpose of the SALT I Agreement?
What was the significance of MIRV technology in the SALT I negotiations?
What was the significance of MIRV technology in the SALT I negotiations?
Why was the Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles only temporary?
Why was the Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles only temporary?
What was the consequence of the Soviet Union being allowed more ICBMs under the Interim Agreement?
What was the consequence of the Soviet Union being allowed more ICBMs under the Interim Agreement?
What was the context of the American involvement in Vietnam during the SALT I negotiations?
What was the context of the American involvement in Vietnam during the SALT I negotiations?
What was Enver Hoxha's response to Khrushchev's policies?
What was Enver Hoxha's response to Khrushchev's policies?
Why did Gheorghieu-Dej fear integration into COMECON?
Why did Gheorghieu-Dej fear integration into COMECON?
What was the event that marked a crack in the Eastern bloc in 1968?
What was the event that marked a crack in the Eastern bloc in 1968?
What was Alexander Dubček's approach to the economy?
What was Alexander Dubček's approach to the economy?
What was the consequence of the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia?
What was the consequence of the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia?
What was the significance of Operation Danube?
What was the significance of Operation Danube?
What was the consequence of Moscow severing relations with Albania?
What was the consequence of Moscow severing relations with Albania?
What was the tone of Enver Hoxha's policy towards the Soviet Union?
What was the tone of Enver Hoxha's policy towards the Soviet Union?
What was the main justification for the Soviet Union's invasion of Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan?
What was the main justification for the Soviet Union's invasion of Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan?
What was the outcome of the Sino-Soviet Split in 1963?
What was the outcome of the Sino-Soviet Split in 1963?
What was a key factor in the deterioration of the Soviet-Chinese alliance?
What was a key factor in the deterioration of the Soviet-Chinese alliance?
What was the main principle behind the Brezhnev Doctrine?
What was the main principle behind the Brezhnev Doctrine?
What was the main factor that led to a more multipolar world?
What was the main factor that led to a more multipolar world?
What was a consequence of the Sino-Soviet Split?
What was a consequence of the Sino-Soviet Split?
What was the primary goal of France's foreign policy under de Gaulle?
What was the primary goal of France's foreign policy under de Gaulle?
What was the primary concern of Mao in the Sino-Soviet Split?
What was the primary concern of Mao in the Sino-Soviet Split?
What was the consequence of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command structure in 1966?
What was the consequence of France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command structure in 1966?
What was the significance of the Sino-Soviet Split in the context of the communist bloc?
What was the significance of the Sino-Soviet Split in the context of the communist bloc?
What was the significance of the conference of Bandung?
What was the significance of the conference of Bandung?
What was the outcome of France's boycott of the EEC in 1965?
What was the outcome of France's boycott of the EEC in 1965?
What was the Brezhnev Doctrine's stance on national sovereignty?
What was the Brezhnev Doctrine's stance on national sovereignty?
Why did France resist and try to maintain a dialogue with the Soviet Union?
Why did France resist and try to maintain a dialogue with the Soviet Union?
What was the significance of the Prague Spring of 1968?
What was the significance of the Prague Spring of 1968?
What was the result of France's veto of British accession to the EEC in 1967?
What was the result of France's veto of British accession to the EEC in 1967?
What was the strategy of the North Vietnamese and the insurgents in the South?
What was the strategy of the North Vietnamese and the insurgents in the South?
What was the significance of the Ho Chi Minh Trail?
What was the significance of the Ho Chi Minh Trail?
What was the consequence of the American action in Vietnam?
What was the consequence of the American action in Vietnam?
What was the result of the Vietnamese support for the communist fraction in Cambodia?
What was the result of the Vietnamese support for the communist fraction in Cambodia?
What was the domino theory?
What was the domino theory?
What was the significance of the events in Cambodia in 1975?
What was the significance of the events in Cambodia in 1975?
What was the tactic used by the Americans in Vietnam?
What was the tactic used by the Americans in Vietnam?
What was the consequence of the American involvement in Vietnam?
What was the consequence of the American involvement in Vietnam?
What was the significance of the Summit being held at all?
What was the significance of the Summit being held at all?
What was the main limitation of the ABM Treaty?
What was the main limitation of the ABM Treaty?
Why did the Soviet Union have more ICBMs allowed under the Interim Agreement?
Why did the Soviet Union have more ICBMs allowed under the Interim Agreement?
What was the purpose of the SALT I Agreement?
What was the purpose of the SALT I Agreement?
What was the significance of MIRV technology in the SALT I negotiations?
What was the significance of MIRV technology in the SALT I negotiations?
Why was the Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles only temporary?
Why was the Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles only temporary?
What was the consequence of the Soviet Union being allowed more ICBMs under the Interim Agreement?
What was the consequence of the Soviet Union being allowed more ICBMs under the Interim Agreement?
What was the context of the American involvement in Vietnam during the SALT I negotiations?
What was the context of the American involvement in Vietnam during the SALT I negotiations?
What was the outcome of the Cuban missile crisis for the Soviet Union?
What was the outcome of the Cuban missile crisis for the Soviet Union?
What was the significance of the hot line between the USSR and the US?
What was the significance of the hot line between the USSR and the US?
What was the main goal of the Soviet Union's military investments after the Cuban crisis?
What was the main goal of the Soviet Union's military investments after the Cuban crisis?
What was the reality that both superpowers realized after the Cuban crisis?
What was the reality that both superpowers realized after the Cuban crisis?
What did the Soviet Union learn from the Cuban missile crisis?
What did the Soviet Union learn from the Cuban missile crisis?
What was the significance of the year 1963 in terms of disarmament negotiations?
What was the significance of the year 1963 in terms of disarmament negotiations?
What was the outcome of the high American military spending?
What was the outcome of the high American military spending?
Who was able to assert his independence in 1960 and relied on Chinese aid?
Who was able to assert his independence in 1960 and relied on Chinese aid?
What was the tone of the era after the Cuban missile crisis?
What was the tone of the era after the Cuban missile crisis?
What was the main concern of Gheorghieu-Dej regarding integration into COMECON?
What was the main concern of Gheorghieu-Dej regarding integration into COMECON?
What was the outcome of Operation Danube in 1968?
What was the outcome of Operation Danube in 1968?
What was the result of Moscow severing relations with Albania in 1961?
What was the result of Moscow severing relations with Albania in 1961?
What was the main characteristic of the Prague Spring?
What was the main characteristic of the Prague Spring?
Who replaced Alexander Dubček in 1969?
Who replaced Alexander Dubček in 1969?
What was the significance of the year 1968 in the Eastern bloc?
What was the significance of the year 1968 in the Eastern bloc?
What was the tone of Enver Hoxha's policy towards the Soviet Union?
What was the tone of Enver Hoxha's policy towards the Soviet Union?
What was the primary goal of the détente policy?
What was the primary goal of the détente policy?
What was the dual-track policy of NATO?
What was the dual-track policy of NATO?
What was the significance of the 'Report of the Council on the Future Tasks of the Alliance'?
What was the significance of the 'Report of the Council on the Future Tasks of the Alliance'?
What was the consequence of more states recognizing East Germany?
What was the consequence of more states recognizing East Germany?
What was the purpose of Ostpolitik?
What was the purpose of Ostpolitik?
What was the significance of the Harmel Report?
What was the significance of the Harmel Report?
What was the goal of NATO according to the Harmel Report?
What was the goal of NATO according to the Harmel Report?
What marked a shift towards a more cooperative approach in NATO?
What marked a shift towards a more cooperative approach in NATO?
What was the primary objective of détente between the US and the Soviet Union?
What was the primary objective of détente between the US and the Soviet Union?
What marked the beginning of the real détente period between the US and the Soviet Union?
What marked the beginning of the real détente period between the US and the Soviet Union?
What was the main purpose of the hot line established in 1963 between the US and the Soviet Union?
What was the main purpose of the hot line established in 1963 between the US and the Soviet Union?
What was a major achievement of the détente period?
What was a major achievement of the détente period?
What was the period of peaceful co-existence between the US and the Soviet Union also known as?
What was the period of peaceful co-existence between the US and the Soviet Union also known as?
What was the significance of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Helsinki in 1975?
What was the significance of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Helsinki in 1975?
What was the outcome of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979?
What was the outcome of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979?
What was the main goal of the US in establishing détente with the Soviet Union?
What was the main goal of the US in establishing détente with the Soviet Union?
What event strengthened Johnson's ability to fight the Vietnam war?
What event strengthened Johnson's ability to fight the Vietnam war?
What was the outcome of the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
What was the outcome of the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
Why did Johnson decide to commit US ground troops to Vietnam?
Why did Johnson decide to commit US ground troops to Vietnam?
What tactic did the communists use to counter US forces?
What tactic did the communists use to counter US forces?
What did Robert McNamara report to Johnson after visiting South Vietnam?
What did Robert McNamara report to Johnson after visiting South Vietnam?
What was the outcome of the US's 'search and destroy' missions?
What was the outcome of the US's 'search and destroy' missions?
When did Johnson decide to commit US ground troops to Vietnam?
When did Johnson decide to commit US ground troops to Vietnam?
What did the Senate motion on August 7 allow Johnson to do?
What did the Senate motion on August 7 allow Johnson to do?
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Study Notes
French Withdrawal from NATO
- 1966: France withdrew from NATO's integrated military command structure under President De Gaulle, who was displeased with America's domination of NATO and the special relation between the US and the UK.
- France did not end its commitment to NATO, nor did it categorically state that NATO could not use French soil in the event of war.
- France's withdrawal caused administrative inconvenience, leading to NATO headquarters being moved from Paris to Brussels.
European Economic Community (EEC)
- 1963: De Gaulle vetoed British candidacy to the EEC, fearing British membership would lead to American influence in the EEC.
- 1965: De Gaulle boycotted EEC meetings to prevent further centralization of the EEC.
- 1967: De Gaulle vetoed British membership to the EEC again; the UK would only accede to the EEC in 1973.
De Gaulle's Foreign Policy
- De Gaulle was critical of US domination and sought to maximize French independence.
- He developed links with communist countries and pursued a policy of independence from the US.
Post-De Gaulle Era
- 1969: De Gaulle resigned after losing a national referendum on constitutional reform.
- Georges Pompidou was elected President after De Gaulle's resignation.
- Pompidou died in 1974, and Valéry Giscard d'Estaing became President.
- François Mitterrand became President in 1981 and served for two terms until 1995.
- Jacques Chirac succeeded Mitterrand as President from 1995 to 2007.
Triangular Diplomacy
- Nixon Presidency: improved relations with the USSR and exploited the Sino-Soviet split.
- "We simply cannot afford to leave China forever outside the family of nations" - Nixon, 1967.
- Third-party diplomacy (1969), ping-pong diplomacy (1971), and Kissinger's visit to Beijing (1971) led to Nixon's visit to China (1972).
- One China policy and recognition of Beijing China (switch from Taipei) in 1979.
China's Nuclear Capability
- 1967: China exploded its first hydrogen bomb, refusing to contemplate non-proliferation and developing long-range rockets to carry nuclear warheads.
- Both the US and USSR reacted with concern to China's growing nuclear capacity.
SALT I Agreements
- The Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles limited the number of missiles for each country to unequal ceilings.
- The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty restricted the number of ABM installations to two each with a maximum capacity of 100 ABMs.
- The SALT I Agreements aimed to stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Communist Bloc and Soviet Dominance
- Albania and Romania's independence from Soviet dominance
- Albania's Stalinist dictator Enver Hoxha criticized Khrushchev and relied on Chinese aid
- Romania feared integration via COMECON would leave it as an agricultural state
- Prague Spring (1968)
- Harsh regime under Antonin Novotny (1953-1968)
- Replaced by Alexander Dubček, introducing market elements and free discussion
- Brezhnev's warnings and military intervention (Operation Danube) led to Dubček's replacement by Husak (April 1969)
France and European Politics
- De Gaulle's independence from US domination
- Developed links with communist countries
- Criticized US domination, maximizing French independence
- France's withdrawal from NATO's integrated military command structure (1966)
- France's role in the EEC
- Vetoed British candidacy (1963 and 1967)
- Boycotted to prevent further centralization (1965)
Brezhnev Doctrine and Sino-Soviet Split
- Brezhnev Doctrine (1968)
- Justification for invasion of Czechoslovakia and later Afghanistan
- Solidarity between nations trumps national sovereignty
- Sino-Soviet Split
- Communist bloc not monolithic
- Detente vs. international proletarian revolution
- Mao posed as 'true' anti-imperialist
- Personal animosity between Mao and Khrushchev
Geopolitics and International Relations
- SALT I Agreements (1972)
- Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and Interim Agreement on Offensive Missiles
- Vietnam War
- Americans installed a pro-western dictator in the south
- Insurgents did not need to win battles, just stay in the war
- Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle confident in communist victory
- Cambodian Civil War and Khmer Rouge Regime
- Overthrow of Prince Sihanouk and rise of Pol Pot's regime (1975)
- Border attacks on Vietnam
Crack in the Eastern Bloc
- Enver Hoxha, the Stalinist dictator of Albania, asserted independence in 1960, openly criticizing Khrushchev and relying on Chinese aid to compensate for the economic embargo imposed by the Soviets.
- In 1961, Moscow severed relations with Albania, though it remained a nominal member of the Warsaw Pact until 1968.
- Romania, under Gheorghieu-Dej, feared that economic integration via COMECON would leave Romania as an agricultural state, while industrial production was concentrated in East Germany and Czechoslovakia.
The Prague Spring
- Harsh regime under Antonin Novotny (1953-68)
- Strong calls for reforms led to Novotny's replacement by Alexander Dubček in 1968
- Introduction of market elements in the economy, free discussion of reforms, and Dubček's emphasis on loyalty to the Warsaw Pact
- Multiple warnings from Brezhnev, military maneuvers as intimidation, and Operation Danube (August 1968) led to Dubček's replacement by Husak in April 1969
Peaceful Coexistence and the Rise of Multipolarity (1963-71)
- The Cuban missile crisis made both sides aware of the dangers of direct confrontation, leading to:
- The opening of a hot line between the USSR and the US
- First disarmament negotiations (PTBT in 1963, NPT in 1968)
- Nuclear technology and parity between the US and USSR
- Real détente after Nixon's election in 1969
Détente
- Easing of tensions between the two superpowers through mutual recognition and non-interference in each other's affairs
- Objectives:
- Avoid nuclear war
- Limit the nuclear arms race
- Hope for economic benefits
- Major achievements:
- Arms negotiations (SALT I & II)
- Ostpolitik and Détente as a European project
- Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Helsinki (1975)
NATO's Dual-Track Policy
- Twin purpose of the alliance: political and military
- Goal: counter Moscow and the Warsaw Pact militarily if necessary, while easing tensions between both camps and providing stability in Europe
- Dual-track policy: deterrence and détente
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