Nationalist Movements & Imperialism

• Nationalist movements emerged in South America, Africa, and Asia in response to European imperialism.
• Leaders of nationalist movements were deeply familiar with Enlightenment ideals like natural rights and sovereignty, sometimes through European educations.
• Colonial elites used their education from imperialist centers to challenge the conquerors.
• Anti-imperial resistance often sought to create independent states.

Nationalist Movements in the Balkans

• The Ottoman Empire's decline fueled nationalist tensions in the Balkans in the early 19th century.
• The principles of the French Revolution and ethnic tensions contributed to the desire for independence among Balkan peoples.
• Serbia (1815) and Greece (1832) gained independence after long struggles.
• Growing ethnic tensions in the region set the stage for World War I.
• In 1877, Serbia and Russia assisted Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria in rebelling against Ottoman rule.
• The Russo-Turkish War and the Treaty of Berlin (1878) freed Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro but put Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austro-Hungarian control.

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas

• The Proclamation of 1763 angered colonists by reserving land west of the Appalachian Mountains for Native Americans, which recognized their territorial rights.
• After American independence, citizens disregarded boundaries, leading to conflict with Native Americans.
• The Cherokee Nation adopted aspects of white settler culture to maintain their land.
• In 1829, the discovery of gold in Georgia led to pressure for Cherokee removal.
• Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, forcing tribes to relocate to present-day Oklahoma, resulting in the Trail of Tears.
• The Ghost Dance movement, which began around 1869, was a spiritual revival to restore Native American lands and ways of life and ended after the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.
• Túpac Amaru II led a rebellion against Spanish rule in Peru starting in 1780, claiming descent from the last Inca ruler, but he was executed in 1781 after the rebellion was suppressed.

Southeast Asian Resistance

• By the 1880s, most of Southeast Asia, except Siam (Thailand), was under European control, primarily by the Dutch, British, and French.
• In Vietnam, French colonialism faced resistance and by 1884, Vietnam was under French control.
• Philippine Resistance against Spanish rule was ongoing in the late 19th century, and José Rizal, who founded the Liga Filipina in 1892 advocating reforms, was executed.
• The Spanish-American War further fueled the conflict, and with the Treaty of Paris (1898), the Philippines was transferred to the United States.
• The Philippine-American War ended with American victory by 1902.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand

• In Australia, the Aboriginal population faced displacement and loss of land as their numbers drastically declined following British colonization starting in 1788, despite resistance.
• In New Zealand, the Maori population initially engaged with European traders but faced increasing pressure as more British settlers arrived.
• The Treaty of Waitangi (1840) was intended to protect Maori rights but was often disregarded, and the Maori Wars resulted in significant land loss for the Maori.

African Resistance

• Organized African resistance to European imperialism developed later in the 19th century, compared to Asia, due to a lack of unified political structures and European military technology.
• European colonial administrations in Africa were often largely run by military officials.
• The Sokoto Caliphate in West Africa resisted British attempts to interfere with their trade and governance until subjugated by 1903.
• In South Africa, the Xhosa people resisted British expansion from the early to late 19th century through the Xhosa Wars (1811-1858).
• In Sudan, the Mahdist Revolt (1881-1899), led by Muhammad Ahmad (the Mahdi), aimed to restore Islamic rule and expel the Egyptians and British but was defeated by British forces in 1898.
• In the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana), the Yaa Asantewaa War (1900) was led by the Asante queen mother Yaa Asantewaa against British attempts to claim the Golden Stool; the rebellion was unsuccessful.

Global Economic Development and Imperialism

• Economics was a major driving force behind European imperialism in the 1700s and 1800s.
• Industrialized nations required raw materials such as cotton, wool, copper, and rubber to feed their factories.
• Europeans sought new markets in Asia and Africa to sell their manufactured goods.
• Colonies provided resources of agricultural products like sugar and tobacco for European consumption.
• Technological developments played a crucial role in facilitating imperialism.
• Railroads enabled the transportation of raw materials and manufactured goods, connecting inland resources to coastal ports.
• Steamboats made it easier to access and control distant territories because they both facilitated travel and trade along rivers and coastlines.
• The telegraph provided rapid communication between imperial centers and their colonies, aiding in governance and control.
• New agricultural techniques and crops were introduced in some colonies, often focusing on cash crops for export.
• The growth of a European middle class created demand for imported goods and food products.
• Resources like guano from Peru and Chile were used as natural fertilizers for European agriculture.

Raw Materials and Colonial Economies

• Demand for raw materials shaped the economies of many colonies.
• Cotton became a key raw material for British textile industries, and British policies often aimed to limit textile production in colonies like India to ensure a market for British goods.
• Rubber, sourced from the Amazon and cultivated in Southeast Asia and Africa, became essential for industrializing countries resulting in forced labor.
• Palm oil from West Africa and Southeast Asia was used in European industries.
• Minerals such as copper, tin, gold, and diamonds were extracted from colonies.
• Cecil Rhodes and his De Beers Mining Company gained significant control over diamond production in South Africa.

Global Consequences of Economic Development and Imperialism

• Imperialism led to the integration of global markets.
• Monoculture (growing single cash crops) in colonies led to a decline in agricultural diversity and food security.
• Farmers in former colonies often became unable to diversify their agriculture and became reliant on imports for basic food needs.
• The drive for raw materials and cash crops led to environmental degradation in some regions.

Economic Imperialism

• Describes a situation where foreign business interests have significant economic power or influence over a territory, even without direct political control.
• The British East India Company in India is an early example of wielded significant economic and political power.
• In Asia, European powers sought to establish spheres of economic influence.
• The Dutch East India Company controlled trade in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), often through coercive labor systems.
• In China, European powers engaged in the opium trade to gain economic advantages, resulting in treaties that granted significant concessions.
• In Africa, European powers focused on extracting raw materials and establishing markets.
• Latin American nations experienced economic imperialism from Britain and the United States despite being politically independent.
• American sugar planters gained significant economic and political power in Hawaii, leading to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy and annexation by the United States.

Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World

• A global economy driven by imperialism and industrialization led to new patterns of migration.
• Low-wage labor was desired in colonial economies.
• While the transatlantic slave trade declined, other forms of coerced labor, like indentured servitude and contract labor, continued.
• Indian laborers migrated to British colonies to work on plantations, and Chinese laborers migrated to various regions.
• Poverty and lack of economic opportunity were major push factors for migration.
• Indentured servitude involved people working for a set number of years to pay off a debt.
• Migration was often a response to challenges such as famine, poverty, and political conditions.

Voluntary and Coerced Migration Patterns in the 19th Century

• Voluntary migration included Italians to Argentina, Japanese to Hawaii, Chinese to the United States, and Irish to the United States.
• Coerced or semi-coerced migration included Africans to the Americas and Europe and British convicts to Australia.
• Chinese and Indians migrated to the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Americas as contract or indentured laborers.

Effects of Migration

• Migration led to demographic changes and the formation of ethnic enclaves.
• Migrants maintained elements of their cultures, creating cultural diversity in host societies.
• Migration influenced social structures and gender roles.
• Migration had significant economic impacts, with remittances supporting families and filling labor shortages.
• Prejudice and discrimination against immigrant groups were common, and the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States aimed to restrict immigration based on ethnicity.
• Migration contributed to the spread of diseases.
• Migrants formed new communities and organizations based on their shared origins.
• In some cases, migration led to conflict and competition for resources.

Causation in the Imperial Age

• Industrial capitalism was a fundamental cause of imperialism.
• Increased production capacity in industrialized nations led to a "conquest of the earth" for resources and markets.
• Competition among European powers drove imperial expansion.
• Advances in technology, such as military weapons and transportation, made it easier for European powers to conquer and control vast territories.
• Western powers achieved dominance due to their technological and industrial advantages.

Rationales for Imperialism

• Nationalism led European nations to increase their power and prestige.
• Economic motives were central to the drive for colonies.
• The concept of the "civilizing mission" asserted a European duty to bring their culture and religion to other parts of the world.
• Social Darwinism was used to justify European dominance by arguing for the inherent superiority of the white race.
• Missionaries sought to spread Christianity and often provided education and medical care.

State Expansion

• European powers expanded their control over Africa and Asia in the 19th century.

Imperialism in Africa

• The Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century was intense
• competition among European powers for control of the continent, with the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) establishing rules for the partition of Africa.
• Examples of European expansion include King Leopold II of Belgium's rule in the Congo, British expansion in Egypt, West Africa, and South Africa, French expansion in Algeria and other parts of North and West Africa, and German expansion in various parts of Africa.

Imperialism in Asia

• The British East India Company consolidated control over India.
• France established control over French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia).
• The Dutch expanded their control over the Indonesian archipelago.
• The United States acquired territories in the Pacific, including Hawaii and the Philippines, while Japan pursued its own imperial ambitions in East Asia.
• The United States expanded across North America and extended its influence into the Pacific, annexing Hawaii and gaining control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.
• Russia expanded its empire in Central Asia.

China - Qing Rule to Revolution

• The Qing dynasty (1644-1911) was established by Manchu invaders.
• China had been a technologically advanced nation but experienced isolation and complacency under the Qing.
• China faced internal rebellions, including the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804) and the devastating Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), which advocated radical social and political reforms.
• China was subjected to foreign influence and economic exploitation in the 19th century, particularly after the Opium Wars.
• The May Fourth Movement of 1919 was a protest against foreign imperialism and the weakness of the Qing government.
• The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1880s) aimed to modernize China while maintaining Confucian values.
• The Boxer Rebellion (1898-1900) was a peasant-based anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement that was suppressed by a multinational force.
• The Qing Reform Edict of 1901 was implemented to modernize China after the Boxer Rebellion.
• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921, with Mao Zedong believing the peasantry could be the revolutionary vanguard.
• Sun Yat-sen led the movement to overthrow the Qing dynasty, and the 1911 revolution ended the Qing rule and established a republic, but China entered a period of warlordism.
• After Sun's death in 1925, a power struggle emerged between Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists led by Mao Zedong.
• The Communists gained increasing support from the peasantry through strategies like the Long March and guerrilla warfare.
• After World War II and a civil war, the Communist Party emerged victorious, and the People's Republic of China was established in 1949 with Mao Zedong as the leader.

India under British Rule and the Nationalist Movement

• The British East India Company gradually gained control over India starting in the mid-18th century.
• By the 1850s, Britain exerted significant control over India through economic exploitation, and after the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the British government took direct control.
• British colonization transformed India into a third-world country.
• The Indian nationalist movement grew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for self-rule.
• Key figures included Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Gandhi developed Satyagraha (truth force), a form of non-violent resistance, and emphasized Indian self-reliance (Swadeshi).
• Nehru advocated for modern machinery and industrialization for India's development.
• The Indian National Congress became a mass movement under Gandhi's leadership, organizing nationwide campaigns of civil disobedience.
• India achieved independence in 1947, but the subcontinent was partitioned into India and Pakistan.
• Post-independence India faced challenges such as poverty, illiteracy, and social inequalities but also made progress in areas like food production and industrialization and adopted a democratic system of government.

The Ottomans in Europe, Egypt, & Africa and Islamic Nationalism

• The Ottoman Empire had a vast territory by 1566.
• Islamic nationalism, including Wahhabism, emerged within the empire.
• The Ottoman Empire underwent Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1900s) aimed at modernization.