Nationalism in India Chapter 2

Nationalism in India

• Modern nationalism in India emerged as a response to colonialism and the sense of being oppressed under colonial rule.
• The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge different groups together within one movement, but unity did not emerge without conflict.

The Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements

• The national movement spread to new areas, incorporating new social groups, and developing new modes of struggle after 1919.
• The First World War led to a huge increase in defense expenditure, financed by war loans and increasing taxes, causing extreme hardship for the common people.
• The war also led to forced recruitment in rural areas, causing widespread anger, and crop failures resulting in acute food shortages.

The Idea of Satyagraha

• Mahatma Gandhi introduced the idea of satyagraha, emphasizing the power of truth and the need to search for truth through non-violent mass agitation.
• Satyagraha suggested that if the cause was true, physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor, and that truth would ultimately triumph.
• Gandhiji believed that this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

The Rowlatt Act

• The Rowlatt Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
• Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, calling for non-violent civil disobedience against unjust laws.
• The British administration responded with brutal repression, leading to widespread violence and attacks on government buildings.

The Jallianwalla Bagh Incident

• On 13 April 1919, British General Dyer opened fire on a peaceful procession in Jallianwalla Bagh, killing hundreds, in an attempt to "produce a moral effect" and create fear among satyagrahis.

The Non-Cooperation Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement.
• In 1920, Gandhiji proposed a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and swaraj, which would begin with the surrender of titles, boycott of civil services, and foreign goods.
• The movement would unfold in stages, with full civil disobedience campaigns to be launched if the government used repression.

Differing Strands within the Movement

• The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921, with various social groups participating, each with its own specific aspirations.
• The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities, with students leaving government-controlled schools, headmasters and teachers resigning, and lawyers giving up their practices.
• Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires, leading to a significant drop in the import of foreign cloth.
• The movement in the cities slowed down due to the high cost of khadi cloth and the difficulty of boycotting mill cloth for too long.### Non-Cooperation Movement
• The Non-Cooperation Movement was a call to action by Gandhiji to join the movement and boycott British institutions.
• Students and teachers began to return to government schools and lawyers went back to work in government courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside

• The movement spread from cities to the countryside, incorporating the struggles of peasants and tribals.
• In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
• Peasants were forced to work without payment and had no security of tenure.
• Jawaharlal Nehru began visiting villages in Awadh, understanding their grievances and setting up the Oudh Kisan Sabha.

Peasant Movement

• The peasant movement developed in various forms, sometimes disagreeing with the Congress leadership.
• In 1921, the movement spread, and houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.
• Local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.

Tribal Peasants

• Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of swaraj in their own way.
• In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread, not approved by the Congress.
• The colonial government had closed large forest areas, affecting the livelihoods of the hill people and denying their traditional rights.
• Alluri Sitaram Raju, a leader, claimed to have special powers and talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, but also believed in the use of force to achieve swaraj.

Swaraj in the Plantations

• Workers had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and the notion of swaraj.
• For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely and retain links with their village.
• Thousands of workers defied authorities, left plantations, and headed home, but were caught and brutally beaten by the police.

Visions of Swaraj

• The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress programme.
• They interpreted swaraj in their own ways, imagining a time when all suffering and troubles would be over.
• When they acted in the name of Mahatma Gandhi, they were identifying with a movement that went beyond their local limits.

Towards Civil Disobedience

• In 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement, feeling it was turning violent.
• Within the Congress, some leaders were tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils.
• C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party to argue for a return to council politics.
• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and full independence.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi found a powerful symbol in salt to unite the nation.
• On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands, including the abolition of the salt tax.
• The salt march, accompanied by 78 volunteers, began on 12 March 1930, from Gandhiji's ashram in Sabarmati to Dandi.
• The movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement, as people were now asked to break colonial laws, manufacture salt, and demonstrate in front of government salt factories.### The Civil Disobedience Movement
• In 1930, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested, leading to angry crowds demonstrating in the streets of Peshawar.
• Mahatma Gandhi was arrested a month later, and industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts, and railway stations.
• The government responded with brutal repression, leading to the arrest of around 100,000 people.
• Gandhi called off the movement and entered into the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, agreeing to participate in the Round Table Conference in London.
• The pact led to the release of political prisoners, but Gandhi returned to India disappointed as the negotiations broke down.

Participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Rich peasant communities, such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh, participated in the movement, seeking to lower the revenue demand.
• Poorer peasants, including small tenants, joined the movement, seeking to remit unpaid rent to landlords.
• Business classes, including merchants and industrialists, participated in the movement, seeking protection against imports of foreign goods and a favorable exchange rate.
• Industrial working classes participated in the movement, selectively adopting some of the Gandhian programme, such as boycotting foreign goods.
• Women participated in the movement, manufacturing salt, picketing foreign cloth and liquor shops, and going to jail.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

• The 'untouchables' or dalits, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, participated in the movement, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions and a separate electorate.
• Dalit leaders were suspicious of the Congress, fearing that it would not address their social disabilities.
• Muslim political organizations, such as the Muslim League, were lukewarm in their response to the movement, fearing the domination of a Hindu majority.
• The movement was marked by communal clashes and riots between Hindus and Muslims, deepening the distance between the two communities.

Key Figures and Events

• Mahatma Gandhi: Called off the movement and entered into the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, participating in the Round Table Conference in London.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Led the dalits, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions and a separate electorate.
• Sir Muhammad Iqbal: As president of the Muslim League, reiterated the importance of separate electorates for Muslims as a safeguard for their minority political interests.
• Bhagat Singh: A leader of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army, executed by the colonial government in 1929.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: A leader of the Congress, arrested in 1931.
• Ghaffar Khan: A devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, arrested in 1930.