Nationalism in Europe

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• Nationalism became a significant force in 19th-century Europe, driving the unification of nation-states.
• The French Revolution (1789) played a pivotal role in disseminating the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, thereby influencing nationalist movements.
• The modern state, characterized by centralized power and sovereign control over a defined territory, evolved through these transformations.
• Prior to the rise of nationalism, Europe was marked by dynastic empires and diverse populations with varied cultures and identities.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• The French Revolution shifted sovereignty from the monarchy to the citizenry, fostering the concept of a unified nation.
• Measures implemented to forge a collective identity included new national symbols (flag, anthem), a centralized administration, and a standardized system of weights and measures.
• Promotion of the French language aimed to establish a common tongue for the nation.
• Revolutionaries saw it as their duty to liberate European peoples from despotic rule, thus spreading nationalism.

The Napoleonic Era

• Napoleon's conquests in the early 19th century spread revolutionary ideas across Europe.
• Despite his autocratic rule, Napoleon's administrative reforms in conquered territories streamlined administrative divisions, eliminated feudal systems, and ensured equality before the law.
• The Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804) standardized laws, property rights, and the abolition of feudal dues.
• Napoleon's invasions sparked resistance in other countries, fueling national sentiment against foreign domination.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

• In the mid-18th century, Europe was fragmented into various kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with distinct languages and cultures.
• Society was dominated by a landed aristocracy, while the majority of the population consisted of peasants.
• Nationalism gained traction among the educated, liberal middle class.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

• The landed aristocracy possessed estates and used French in diplomacy and high society.
• Industrialization led to the rise of a new middle class comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• Educated middle-class liberals championed national unity and constitutional government.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

• Liberalism emphasized individual rights, equality before the law, and constitutional government with elected representatives.
• In economics, liberalism advocated for free markets and the removal of state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
• The Zollverein (customs union) in Prussia in 1834 eliminated tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.

A New Conservatism After 1815

• After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, European powers sought to restore the old order.
• Conservatism emphasized the importance of tradition, monarchy, and established institutions.
• Conservatives acknowledged that certain Napoleonic changes, such as a modern army and efficient bureaucracy, could strengthen the state.
• The Treaty of Vienna (1815) aimed to reinstate monarchies and reshape the map of Europe.

The Revolutionaries

• Secret societies emerged across Europe to advance revolutionary ideas and oppose conservative regimes.
• Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, founded "Young Italy" and "Young Europe" to promote national unity and republican ideals.
• Revolutionaries viewed the creation of nation-states as essential for achieving freedom.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• The first major revolution occurred in France in July 1830, leading to the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and its replacement with a constitutional monarchy.
• The July Revolution in France triggered an uprising in Brussels, resulting in Belgium's separation from the Netherlands.
• The Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) involved Greek nationalists fighting for independence from the Ottoman Empire.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

• Romanticism, an artistic and intellectual movement, emphasized emotion, intuition, and national sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets depicted national identity through folklore, music, and vernacular language.
• Language played a vital role in shaping national identity, exemplified by Poland where it became a symbol of national resistance against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

• The 1830s were marked by economic hardship in Europe due to population growth, unemployment, and food shortages.
• In 1848, widespread revolts erupted across Europe, driven by economic distress and demands for political rights.
• The Silesia weavers' uprising against contractors in 1845 highlighted the plight of workers.

The Revolution of the Liberals

• The 1848 revolutions saw the educated middle class demanding constitutionalism and national unification.
• In France, the National Assembly proclaimed a republic and granted suffrage to all adult males.
• Liberals convened the Frankfurt Parliament in German regions to draft a constitution for a unified German nation-state.
• The Frankfurt Parliament ultimately failed due to opposition from the aristocracy and military.

The Making of Germany and Italy

• After 1848, nationalism in Europe shifted away from democracy and revolution.
• Conservative forces exploited nationalist sentiments to bolster state power and political domination.

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

• Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck's leadership, spearheaded the movement for German unification.
• Bismarck employed a policy of "blood and iron," utilizing military force and diplomacy to achieve unification.
• Three wars (with Austria, Denmark, and France) led to Prussian victory and the unification of Germany in 1871.
• The German Empire was proclaimed in Versailles with the Prussian king, Wilhelm I, as emperor.

Italy Unified

• Like Germany, Italy was divided into multiple states.
• Giuseppe Mazzini sought to unify Italy during the 1830s.
• Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, employed diplomacy and alliances to unify Italy.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi led volunteer armies to liberate Southern Italy and unite it with the North.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became the king of unified Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain

• The formation of Great Britain occurred through a gradual process rather than a sudden revolution.
• England progressively extended its influence over other parts of the British Isles.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland established the "United Kingdom of Great Britain."
• British identity was forged through the dominance of English culture over Scotland and Ireland.

Visualizing the Nation

• Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries used female figures (allegories) to represent nations.
• Marianne symbolized liberty and the Republic as the female allegory of France.
• Germania became the allegory of the German nation.

Nationalism and Imperialism

• By the late 19th century, nationalism in the Balkans resulted in tensions and conflicts.
• European powers competed for control over the Balkans, leading to multiple wars.
• Nationalism, combined with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914 (World War I).
• Anti-imperial movements emerged as nations organized to form new nation-states.

Explore the rise of nationalism in 19th-century Europe and its impact on the formation of nation-states. Examine the influence of the French Revolution and the emergence of the modern state. Discover how collective identity was forged through national symbols and centralized administration.