Nationalism in Europe: 19th Century Overview

In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics', as he called them. The first print of the series, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. As you would recall, artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure – here you can recognise the torch of Enlightenment she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.

On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu's utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume. Leading the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France, identifiable by the revolutionary tri-colour, has just reached the statue.

When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

<p>Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another. However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity among the French people. They emphasized the notions of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The news of the French Revolution spread through Europe, and educated middle classes started setting up Jacobin clubs. The French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and parts of Italy, spreading the ideas of nationalism abroad. The revolutionary wars further propelled the concept of nationalism into the broader European consciousness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Napoleon introduced many reforms in France, including the Civil Code of 1804, which established equality before the law and secured property rights. He also simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudalism, and freed peasants from serfdom. However, he reintroduced monarchy, imposed increased taxation, and forced conscription into the French army, which ultimately led to resistance throughout the territories he conquered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A political philosophy that stresses the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs.<br /> It prefers gradual development to quick change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A new conservatism emerged, advocating for established traditions, institutions, and social hierarchies. This conservatism sought to maintain the monarchy, the Church, social classes, and the institution of property within society. However, this conservatism also recognised the need for some degree of modernization to strengthen traditional institutions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Congress of Vienna in 1815 was a meeting of European powers who sought to restore the balance of power and stability after Napoleon's defeat. It reinstated the Bourbon monarchy in France, created new states, and established a conservative order throughout Europe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The conservative regimes established by the Treaty of Vienna were generally autocratic and repressive, seeking to curb dissent and suppress any ideas that challenged their legitimacy. This led to widespread dissatisfaction and discontent, particularly among liberals and nationalists. The pursuit of economic growth and industrialization, along with the suppression of dissent, further fueled the growth of revolutionary movements in later years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Despite the ideals of equality promoted by the French Revolution, universal suffrage was not implemented. While men were granted the right to vote and stand for elections, those rights were largely limited to property-owning men. Women and men without property remained excluded from political participation. This contradiction highlighted the limitations and hypocrisy of the revolution's vision of equality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Following the Congress of Vienna, secret societies emerged as centers for liberal-nationalist resistance. These groups sought to train revolutionaries, disseminate their ideas, and promote opposition to monarchical rule. These societies played a crucial role in fostering the growth of nationalist sentiment and preparing for future revolutionary movements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Giuseppe Mazzini was a prominent Italian revolutionary who believed that nations were the natural units of mankind. He advocated for the unification of Italy into a single republic as a crucial step towards a broader alliance of nations. His vision of a united, democratic Italy inspired the formation of secret societies across Europe, fueling revolutionary movements for national unification.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Although conservative regimes initially sought to suppress liberal-nationalist movements, they ultimately contributed to their growth. The resistance to conservative rule, combined with the desire for economic modernization, ultimately led to the resurgence of liberal-nationalist movements in the 1840s, culminating in the revolutions of 1848.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prussia, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, played a key role in unifying Germany through a series of wars. The victory over Austria, Denmark, and France solidified Prussian dominance and paved the way for the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871. The unification process was marked by a shift away from liberal-nationalist sentiment to a more conservative approach, driven by Prussian power and ambition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The unification of Italy was a long and challenging process driven by a combination of nationalist aspiration, political maneuvering, and military force. Under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II and the skilled diplomacy of Count Cavour, the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont gradually annexed other Italian states. The support of Giuseppe Garibaldi, a charismatic revolutionary leader, was pivotal in achieving the unification of the southern regions. This process was not without its complexities, however, as it also reflected the power dynamics of the ruling elites and the complex cultural identity of the Italian people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In contrast to the sudden upheavals that marked the unification of Germany and Italy, the formation of Great Britain was a gradual process. It was not a result of a single revolution or a unified national identity. Instead, it was a gradual process of English dominance over the other nations of the British Isles. The English parliament wielded significant power, shaping the political and cultural landscape of the British Isles, leading to the eventual formation of the United Kingdom.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Artists played a significant role in shaping the idea of the nation. Through art, music, poetry, and literature, they helped to express and shape nationalist feelings. Romantic artists, in particular, emphasized emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings, creating a sense of shared cultural heritage and fostering a sense of national unity. They also celebrated folk traditions and vernacular languages, further solidifying the identity of nations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, nationalism and imperialism often intertwined. European powers manipulated nationalist sentiments to further their imperial ambitions, exploiting ethnic tensions and rivalries between nations for their own gain. This led to a series of conflicts in the Balkans and other regions, as European powers sought to expand their influence and control over territories and resources, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The revolutions of 1848 signaled a major shift in European politics, as liberal-nationalist movements gained momentum across the continent. Although these revolutions were largely unsuccessful in achieving immediate political goals, they exposed the fragility of existing power structures and highlighted the growing unrest and discontent among different segments of society. They also propelled the issue of national unification to the forefront of European politics, paving the way for significant political changes in the following decades.</p> Signup and view all the answers