Nationalism and Unification in Europe

Nationalism and Unification

• Nationalism arose from the desire of nations to resist domination, often suppressed by the Concert of Europe.
• Disagreements arose within nations due to over or underrepresentation alongside liberal and nationalist ideologies.
• Post-1848 revolution France established the Second Republic, featuring a parliament, universal manhood suffrage, and a president limited to one 4-year term.
• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III), cultivated public support while secretly planning to restore the imperial rule of his uncle, Napoleon Bonaparte.
• To gain power Napoleon III staged a coup, secured a 10-year presidency through an election, then assumed the title of Emperor Napoleon III.
• Napoleon III initiated HAUSSMANNIZATION, hiring Baron Hausmann to modernize Paris with new water systems and wider avenues, increasing public support.
• Napoleon III employed REALPOLITIK, presenting a facade of democratic belief, to encourage popular support for his imperial ambitions.
• Secret societies like the Carbonari organized to liberate and unify Italy, aiming to remove Austrian, Bourbon, and Papal influence.
• Giuseppe Mazzini started "Young Italy", advocating patriotism, but their 1848 rebellion lacked planning and collapsed quickly.
• Cavour, from Sardinia, dismissed Mazzini's romanticism, formulating a practical strategy for Italian unification.
• Cavour built an army, and allied with Napoleon III against Russia, gaining support against potential Austrian attacks.
• Cavour used Realpolitik to provoke Austria into war, securing Napoleon III's help and successfully capturing Lombardi.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi wanted universal brotherhood, conflicting with Cavour's plan for unification under a king.
• To avoid further conflict, Garibaldi sacrificed his nationalist ideals for Cavour's vision of unification.
• King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto Von Bismarck, a proponent of Realpolitik, to unify Germany.
• Bismarck initiated the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 over conquered lands.

Documents

• Giuseppe Mazzini's "The Duties of Man" (1875) grounded nationalism in God's design, uniting humanity through shared traditions, values, and historical experiences.

• Mazzini urged people to love and cooperate within their nation like a family, advocating democratic participation and a collective future.

• Mazzini's ideas appealed to the working class due to fraternal cooperation, criticism of self-serving rulers, and the vision of a nation as a common workshop.

• Mazzini favored a government reflecting the people's will, redefining borders by popular vote, and promoting social reform for all citizens' well-being.

• Otto von Bismarck's "Blood and Iron" Speech (1862) prioritized military strength over diplomacy to unify a country.

• Bismarck rejected liberal methods, emphasizing Prussia's military dominance over smaller German states.

• Bismarck's nationalism was power-driven and pragmatic, valuing military strength over ideological agreement.

• Bismarck's approach differed sharply from Mazzini's idealistic, moral, and democratic nationalism focused on divine unity.

• Bismarck's Realpolitik favored practical power, military and economic strength, and strategic adaptability, with war as an option.

• Count Cavour's nationalism entailed unification through diplomacy, strategic alliances, and military action led by Piedmont, a contrast to Mazzini’s vision.

• Cavour sought unification through diplomacy and gradual change, unlike Mazzini’s emphasis on revolution.

• Cavour used modernization and economic strength to build a viable Italian state, rather than focusing on emotional unity.

• Cavour's Realpolitik involved practical actions over ideals, provoking Austria to justify military action, and working with monarchies.

• Cavour manipulated public opinion to justify war as necessary for stability, yet Italy remained divided by regional, economic, and cultural factors.

• Promises of peace and order did not result in national stability.

Imperialism and Darwin

• Charles Darwin's evolution studies illustrated survival through adaptation, as seen in the moth example, challenging the notion that inheritance guarantees success.

• Darwin's work, like Karl Marx’s, viewed humans as components in a larger historical process.

• Social Darwinism promoted eliminating the "weak" in society.

• Imperialism surged in the 1880s, resulting in the colonization of Africa and Asia.

• Imperialism was driven by economic, nationalist, technological, humanitarian, and racial motivations.

• The economic goals of imperialism included resource exploitation and new market creation.

• Nationalist motives involved competition among countries, establishing superiority through colonial expansion.

• Technological advancements gave imperial powers an advantage in conquering weaker nations.

• "Humanitarian" arguments claimed imperialism as a moral obligation.

• Racist arguments asserted the inferiority of colonized peoples.

• Herbert Spencer's Social Darwinism appealed to the middle class, attributing wealth to natural superiority & opposing government intervention.

• Spencer's ideas promoted minimal support for the vulnerable, justifying a free market without worker protections.

• Reformers and the working class opposed Spencer, reformers citing systemic poverty and the working class rejecting the notion that suffering is natural.

• Little support for the poor, sick, or unemployed alongside no business regulations or worker protection were the social policies that resulted from these ideas.

• Charles Darwin's "The Origin of Species" (1859) and "The Descent of Man" (1871) introduced natural selection where species evolve, passing on beneficial traits and leading to the extinction of weaker individuals.

• Darwin's ideas were welcomed by scientists/intellectuals who saw evolution as logical.

• Religious believers and traditionalists opposed Darwin, citing conflict with religious texts and concerns about moral values.

• Darwin's ideas challenged religion more than the Scientific Revolution by questioning divine creation and intervention in human development.

• Rudyard Kipling’s "The White Man’s Burden" (1899) portrayed imperialism as a Western duty to civilize supposedly incapable, uncivilized people.

• Kipling framed the "burden" of imperialism as a "sacrifice", where colonizers endure hardship to uplift colonized peoples.

• "The White Man's Burden" validated expansionist policies, appealing to moralists seeking to "civilize" non-Western people and national pride.

• Edward Morel's "The Black Man’s Burden" (1903) refuted Kipling by highlighting violence, exploitation, and destruction caused by imperialism on Africans.

• Imperialism imposes forced labor and uproots traditional life, driven by relentless economic exploitation which affects African people physically, socially, and spiritually.

• Indigenous resistance to imperialism is nearly impossible due to modern European weaponry.

• Imperialism kills people, culture, tradition, and the human spirit.

• Humanitarians, labor activists, and religious groups would be receptive to these criticisms of imperialism.

Photography and Realism

• Realism emerged in 19th-century France, emphasizing science and observation and rejecting idealized depictions in favor of contemporary life and people.

• Gustave Courbet, a key Realist figure, depicted ordinary subjects on a scale previously reserved for historical or mythological scenes.

• Realism contained political and social commentary, addressing concerns of the working class, and Courbet challenged the academic conventions of art.

• Jean Francois Millet focused on rural realism, portraying the peasant class with hardship and dignity, and was a member of the Barbizon school.

• Rosa Bonheur, known for animal paintings, defied gender expectations and was one of the most successful female artists of the 19th century.

• Édouard Manet bridged Realism and Impressionism, focusing on modern urban life.

• Photography began in 1839.

• Heliotype produces blurry photos.

• Calotype produces reproducible images on paper.

• Daguerreotype produces images fixed on metal and using shorter open-shutter times.

• Photography democratized art by providing accessible documentation of events more quickly and cheaply than painting.

Works of Realism and Photography

• Gustave Courbet’s "The Stone Breakers" (1849) portrays laborers breaking stones, critiquing the labor movement through a stark, muted depiction.

• Gustave Courbet's "Burial at Ornans" (1849) shocked critics with its ordinary funeral scene, lacking idealization in its stark depiction of death and mourning.

• Jean Francois Millet’s "The Gleaners" (1857) symbolized social inequality, depicting peasant women collecting leftover wheat.

• Rosa Bonheur's "The Horse Fair" (1853-1855) shows the power and movement of horses at a Parisian market with dynamic composition and loose brushwork.

• Édouard Manet’s "Le Déjeuner sur l’Herbe" (1863) depicted clothed men and a nude woman in a picnic scene, which was rejected by the Salon and broke traditions of the nude.

• Édouard Manet's "Olympia" (1863) showed a nude courtesan with a Black maid, provoking shock due to Olympia’s gaze, agency, and the painting's racial contrast.

• Joseph Nicephore Niepce’s "View from the Window at Le Gras" (1826-1827) is the world's oldest surviving photograph.

• Louis-Jacques-Mande-Daguerre's "Still Life in Studio" (1837) is a daguerreotype photo on metal, appearing grainy due to silver.

Impressionism and Modernity

• Impressionists, rejecting the state-sponsored Salon, organized independent exhibitions from 1874 to 1886, forming the Anonymous Society of Painters, Sculptors, Printmakers, etc.

• Key Impressionist artists included Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Berthe Morisot, and Alfred Sisley.

• Impressionists were criticized for loose brushwork and unfinished look, initially a derogatory term that artists later embraced in the 1880s.

• The Everyday contemporary life was the focus for impressionists rather than historical or mythological scenes.

• Impressionists used visible, short brushstrokes and pure colors for optical blending, capturing fleeting light and atmospheric conditions, often painting outdoors ("en plein air").

• Impressionists focused on landscapes, urban scenes, and modern life, challenging the Academy’s hierarchy.

• "Modernity" in 19th-century Europe marked a break from the past, transitioning from rural to industrialized urban societies experiencing social challenges and consumerism.

• Cities became centers of wealth and opportunity, but urbanization created social challenges (crime, sex work, alienation.

• religion's role was reduced, and art shifted to personal expression.

• Europe used modernity to justify colonial expansion and had social movements to address worker exploitation.

• Many artists relied on the growing bourgeoisie for patronage, favoring middle-class tastes in landscapes, genre paintings, and still life.

• Vanguard (avant-garde) artists took creative risks.

• The Palais Garnier (Paris Opera House) was the center of modern Paris, influenced by Haussmannization.

• Japanese wood prints (japonisme) of ukiyo-e genre influenced European art, breaking conventional rules with odd angles and tilted views.

• Claude Monet’s "Boulevard Des Caprices" is an example of Claude Monet's work.

• Claude Monet's "Impression, Sunrise" (1872) captured a fleeting moment of sunrise amid the pollution of the Industrial Revolution, using easily accessible paint tubes.

• Claude Monet’s "La Gare St. Lazare" (1877) has shapes blended with rough brushwork, creating texture.

• Mary Cassatt's "The Coiffure" (1890-1891) is a flat depiction of a non-idealized, fleeting moment, focusing on the domestication of women.

• Auguste-Pierre Renoir’s "La Moulin de la Galette" (1876) is a fleeting moment of light with quick brushstrokes; a genre painting set en plein air in a Hausmann-built park.

Romantic Opera I

• MEAN NURSE is still applicable as a theme.

• The 19th century was the Golden Age of Opera.

• Rossini, Bellini, Verdi, Puccini (Italian) and Richard Wagner, and Georges Bizet (realistic opera musicians) were artists that were very prominent at the time.

• Most operas composed during the time, were written in Italian due to the way the language sounds when song.

• Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) composer was the most prominent composer of the time.

• Opera was most popular among the growing middle class.

• “The Barber of Seville” (1816)Opera Buffa is still played on stage today.

• Rossini also composed "William Tell Overture" (1829).

• Italian Bel Canto Opera focused on range and the solo voice, featuring lyrical soprano over broken chord patterns.

• Prima Donna, Italian for "first lady", describes the most important role, had strong range, in Italian opera.

• Diva means “goddess”, which is synonym for Prima Donna.

• Vincenzo Bellini composed "Castro Diva from Norma" (1831).

• Orchestras functioned like a guitar; simple baseline, arpeggio chords, and sets the stage for voice.

• 1821, castrato disappears on stage and replaced with more natural / romantic sounding high-pitched male voice.

• Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) composed 26 operas over 50 years.

• Opera work was more available than anyone else.

• Verdi was born in 1813 and rejected from the Conservatory of Music at 29.

• The Nabucco opera launched Verdi in European music and introduced nationalism (protest, social, political movements, and cultural changes).

• Verdi was a political leftist, a revolutionary, working to overthrow the Austrian government with revolutionary/green party initials connecting to the unification of Italy.

• Nabucco Opera references to Jewish people.

• Post failed revolution in 1849, Verdi focused on personal drama, deeper emotions, complex melodies, and less subtle emotions in works.

• Recitativo accompagnato transitions the orchestra to recitative, introducing forza.

• Verdi’s "La Traviata" (1853) tells of Violetta Valery, a prostitute, who leaves Alfredo.

• The libretto of La Traviata was based on “Camille” by Alexandre Dumas.

• Cabaletta is the dramatic declaration and show-stopping moment of a piece.

Romantic Opera II

• Opera in mid-to-late 19th century was exported throughout Europe incorporating nationalistic pride: using native indigenous national languages.

• Nostalgia was directed toward the Renaissance, Classical era, and “Dark Ages” with language scholars rediscovering published medieval sagas/poems.

• Nationalism was shown by use of indigenous languages, nostalgic themes, and agrarian themes.

• Richard Wagner (1813-1883) used German literature and nationalism as inspiration for his operas, wrote operas in the native language, and wrote librettos.

• Wagner believed his operas would revolutionize society, was anti-Semitic, and his works were later used as propaganda by Hitler.

• Wagner was self taught and Beethoven was his idol.

• Wagner moves to Paris to produce opera and gain fame, but eventually ended up being sent to a dead hears prison due to not being able to get his work produced in Paris.

• He was offered a position a the Dresden Operation after being produced in native country of Germany; produced The Flying Dutchman (1844) and Lohengrin (1848).

• As political revolutions throughout much of Europe occurred, Wagner fled and wrote musical dramas on a scaled never seen before and created a set of 4 operas the would revolutionize history.

• The Ring Cycle (The Song of the Nibelungs).

• Solicited money from the king and built his own theatre, and Bayreuth music festival that showcases all work still goes on.

• He created/utilized many revolutionary elements that still exist today.

• Wagner also handled every aspects of his operas; created music, wrote libretto, fundraiser, theatre builder, conductor, composer, etc.

• Wagner had a Total Art Work with the fusion of all arts being of equal importance.

• Differs from traditional operas in 3 ways; no aria/recitatives/chorus, all combined, avoided symmetry, repetition, words, and increased importance of orchestra (harmony with voices) and used a 125 musician orchestra.

• Used German folk songs and avoided traditional forms.

• Wagner has motivating socio-political elements, greed, power, heroism, and race.

• The Ring Cycle is an allegory for the 19th century evolving Germany.

• Wagner introduces a leitmotif: a brief distinctive musical sentence representing ideas, characters, or objects played by the orchestra.

Realistic Opera

• Realistic opera speaks to the real issues of the day and presents them realistically.

• Takes star times and moves them from midday to evening, to in inviting middle class patrons.

• Painters, writers, and philosophers, commented on the transform of the mundane/common place into art to find the poetic/heroic.

• Georges Bizet (1838-1875) created the first realistic opera with Carmen.

• The libretto was called “obscene” and said to be far too shocking for Parisians.

• The real women of the chorus threatened to strike due to being told to smoke and fight.

• Carmen consists of alluring melodies, Spanish phrases, flamenco, and song "Habanera".

• The opera premier was a failure and Bizet had a heart attack.

• Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) composed Italian realistic opera, or Verismo.

• Puccini created Verismo opera after living much of his life after Graduating Milan Conservatory in poverty.

• He lessen distinction from rec/aria, contrast between beauty and the downtrodden elements made the great paradox of the opera great, Bel Canto singing style, and syllabically singing.

• Puccini's most famous works include La Bohème, Tosca, and Madama Butterfly.

Late Romantic Orchestral Music

• By the 19th century, orchestras had grown.

• Symphony halls became sanctuaries.

• Johannes Brahms (1833-1897).

• As Beethoven's successor of orchestral music, Robert Schumann recognized him as a musical genius.

• He developed a close relationship with clara wieck schumnna and stayed as a bachelor to his remaining days.

• In 1863, he became conducter and performer.

• Inspired by mozard, haydn, and Shubert, which caused him to to return to symphonies, quartets, concertos, sonatas.

• Didn’t write program music, instead created Absolute Music and developed small motifs.

• Violin Concerto in D Major (1870) rivaled Beethoven.

• Heavily influenced by Hungarian folk music melodic lines.

• Gustav Mahler (1860-1911).

• An extravagant domineering, control freak from a Jewish middle-class family.

• Conducted viena court in 1897 opera but was fired due to his tyrannical behavior.

• Mahler expanded instrumental music structures as a dream of like experiencin the world.

• Mahler Symphonies used used folk dances, popular music, bugle calls, military chants, and symphonies.

• Sigmund Freud psychoanalyzed his dreams.

• Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904).

• Was a Czech Republic song.

• Uncles saw talent and sent him to study organ in Prauge.

• He lookes for living playing oragan music.

• He published the Slavonic dances in 1878.

• Offered to National Conservatory of Muzic, New York City in 1892

• In the 19th century, the Czech community finished his Symphony No.9

• No composer "ever has had such a triumph".

• Had deep interest in indigenous music of African Americans and Native Americans

• Uses 5 note pentatonic scale , field hollers, work songs, African american blues, black spirituals.