Nation-Building and Its Challenges

• Nation-Building and Its Challenges

Challenges of Nation-Building

• India faced three key challenges immediately after independence: shaping a united nation, establishing democracy, and ensuring development and well-being for the entire society.
• The partition of India in 1947 resulted in large-scale displacement and violence, posing a significant challenge to national unity.
• Integrating princely states into the Union of India was crucial for territorial integrity.
• Establishing democratic governance required framing a constitution and holding free and fair elections.
• Economic development aimed at alleviating poverty and social inequalities was vital for long-term stability.

Partition: Displacement and Rehabilitation

• The partition led to one of the largest, most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfers of population in human history
• Partition was not just a division of properties, liabilities and assets, but also a violent division of communities who had hitherto lived together as neighbours
• People of different religions were rendered refugees in their own land
• The challenge of rehabilitation of these refugees was so grim
• Women were often abducted, raped and even killed
• Thousands of children were orphaned

Integration of Princely States

• The British India was divided into British Indian provinces and Princely States.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel played a crucial role in negotiating with the rulers of princely states to join the Indian Union.
• Most princely states acceded to India peacefully, but challenges arose with states like Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir, and Manipur.
• The government used diplomacy and, when necessary, military intervention to ensure their integration.

The Question of Jammu and Kashmir

• Jammu and Kashmir's accession to India was complex due to its Hindu ruler and Muslim-majority population.
• Initial reluctance of the ruler to join either India or Pakistan led to Pakistani incursions.
• Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession with India, leading to Indian military intervention.
• This resulted in a long-standing dispute, with parts of the state under Pakistani control.

Political Formation

Organisation of States

• The reorganization of states began in 1953 with the formation of Andhra Pradesh, created out of Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras State.
• The States Reorganisation Commission was established to redraw the boundaries of states based on linguistic lines.
• The commission's recommendations were implemented in 1956, leading to the creation of 14 states and 6 union territories.

The Era of One-Party Dominance

• The Indian National Congress dominated Indian politics in the initial years after independence.

• Factors contributing to Congress dominance included its role in the freedom movement and the charismatic leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru.

• The dominance of the Congress Party did not mean the absence of opposition parties.

• Socialist, communist, and other parties existed, offering alternative ideologies and criticisms of Congress policies.

• Despite its dominance, the Congress Party accommodated various factions and interests, making it a broad-based coalition.

• Politics of Planned Development

Planning

• After independence, India adopted economic planning to accelerate development and reduce poverty.
• The Planning Commission was established in 1950 to formulate Five-Year Plans.
• The First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) focused on agriculture, while the Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961) emphasized industrialization.
• India followed a mixed economy model, combining elements of both capitalist and socialist approaches.
• Land reforms, including abolition of zamindari, aimed to redistribute land and empower farmers.

Green Revolution

• The Green Revolution in the 1960s introduced high-yielding varieties of seeds and modern agricultural techniques.
• It significantly increased food production, making India self-sufficient in food grains.
• However, it also led to regional disparities and environmental concerns due to overuse of fertilizers and pesticides.

India’s External Relations

Nehru’s Foreign Policy

• Jawaharlal Nehru played a key role in shaping India's foreign policy.
• Nehru's foreign policy was based on non-alignment, Panchsheel, and anti-colonialism.
• Non-alignment meant not joining any military alliance led by the US or the Soviet Union.
• Panchsheel, or the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, guided India's relations with China and other countries.
• India actively supported decolonization movements in Asia and Africa.

India-China Relations

• Initially, India and China had cordial relations, symbolized by the slogan "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai."
• However, border disputes and China's support to Pakistan led to deteriorating relations.
• The Sino-Indian War of 1962 resulted in a setback for India and strained relations.

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

• India and Pakistan have been involved in several conflicts, including wars in 1947-48, 1965, and 1971.
• The 1971 war led to the creation of Bangladesh.
• The Kargil conflict in 1999 further strained relations.
• Despite conflicts, efforts have been made to normalize relations through dialogues and confidence-building measures.

Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System

Political Succession after Nehru

• After Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri became the Prime Minister.
• Shastri's tenure was short-lived due to his sudden death in 1966.
• Indira Gandhi then became the Prime Minister, marking a new phase in Indian politics.

Fourth General Election 1967

• The 1967 elections saw a decline in Congress dominance.
• Several non-Congress parties formed coalition governments in various states.
• This marked the beginning of coalition politics in India.

Split in the Congress

• Internal differences within the Congress Party led to a split in 1969.
• The party divided into Congress (O) and Congress (R), with Indira Gandhi leading the latter.
• This split weakened the Congress Party but also allowed Indira Gandhi to consolidate her position.

The Crisis of Democratic Order

Economic Context

• Indira Gandhi’s government tried to curb the rising prices through its ‘ Ten Point Programme’
• There was widespread discontent and protest against this situation all over the country.

Gujarat and Bihar Movements

• Student protests against rising prices, corruption, and unemployment gained momentum in Gujarat and Bihar in 1974.
• Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) led the Bihar movement, advocating for "total revolution."
• These movements challenged the authority of the Congress government.

The Emergency

• In 1975, Indira Gandhi's government declared a state of emergency due to prevailing conditions.
• Civil liberties were suspended, and many opposition leaders were arrested.
• The government justified the emergency as necessary to maintain law and order and ensure economic stability.

Consequences of the Emergency

• The emergency led to widespread human rights violations and suppression of dissent.
• The government implemented controversial policies like forced sterilization.
• The emergency damaged India's democratic credentials.

Elections after the Emergency

• In 1977, elections were held, and the Janata Party, a coalition of opposition parties, came to power.
• This marked the end of Congress dominance and the restoration of democracy.

Rise of Popular Movements

Grassroots Movements

• Grassroots movements emerged in response to environmental degradation, displacement, and social injustice.
• The Chipko movement protested against deforestation in the Himalayas.
• The Narmada Bachao Andolan opposed the construction of dams on the Narmada River, which displaced communities.
• These movements highlighted the importance of people's participation in decision-making.

Social Movements

• Social movements fought for the rights of marginalized groups, including Dalits, women, and tribals.
• The Dalit Panthers movement fought against caste discrimination.
• Women's movements advocated for gender equality and against domestic violence.
• These movements contributed to greater awareness and policy changes.

Regional Aspirations

Regionalism

• Regional aspirations and movements emerged due to various factors, including linguistic identity, economic disparities, and political marginalization.
• Some movements demanded greater autonomy within the Indian Union, while others sought separate statehood.
• The demand for Khalistan in Punjab and the movement for statehood in the Northeast were significant examples of regional aspirations.

Ethnic Conflicts

• Ethnic conflicts arose due to tensions between different ethnic groups over resources, land, and political power.
• Conflicts in the Northeast, particularly in states like Assam and Manipur, involved various ethnic communities.
• These conflicts posed challenges to national integration and required political solutions.

Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Economic Policy Changes

• In 1991, India adopted economic liberalization policies, opening up the economy to foreign investment and market forces.
• These policies led to rapid economic growth but also increased income inequality.
• The role of the state in the economy was reduced, and privatization of public sector enterprises gained momentum.

Coalition Politics

• Since the late 1980s, coalition governments became the norm at the center.
• No single party was able to secure a majority, leading to alliances and power-sharing arrangements.
• This era saw the rise of regional parties and their influence in national politics.

Rise of BJP

• The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged as a major political force based on Hindutva ideology.
• The BJP gained prominence in the 1990s and formed the government in 1998 under Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
• The BJP's rise marked a shift in Indian politics, with greater emphasis on cultural nationalism.