Napoleon III's Authoritarian Nation-State

Napoleon III's Authoritarian Nation-State

• Napoleon III combined nationalist ideas with authoritarian rule after regaining control.
• He was elected due to his famous name, the lower classes' desire for a strong leader, and his use of pamphlets promoting a socio-economic program.
• He believed a strong, authoritarian government was necessary for national unity and social progress.
• He shared power with a conservative National Assembly.
• He increased the Catholic Church's influence through new policies.
• The poor were deprived of voting rights to win over the conservative assembly.
• When the assembly failed to cooperate, he seized power and declared the Second French Empire.
• His actions were later legalized by a public vote.

Economic and Social Policies of Napoleon III

• The 1850s saw economic growth, including the promotion of investment banks and railroads.
• Economic progress reduced social tensions.
• Workers were granted the right to form unions and strike.
• Napoleon III pursued aggressive foreign policies, aiming to redraw borders based on nationalism.
• Involvement in Mexican politics during the U.S. Civil War proved unpopular.
• He retained the National Assembly and Senate, but diminished their powers.
• Public opinion was always a consideration for him.
• Opposition from republicans, monarchists, and liberals grew.
• A new constitution established a hereditary emperor as chief and a parliamentary regime.

Formation of Nation-States: Italy

• Italy was fragmented into un-unified states and a battleground for European conflicts, each state having its own government.
• Milan and Venice were part of the Austrian Empire.
• Klemens von Metternich dismissed the idea of Italy as a nation.
• The Risorgimento was a movement for Italian independence.
• Gissepi Mazzini, called for a democratic republic.
• Mazzini emphasized shared culture and the need for Italian states to break free from foreign rule.
• The Pope opposed unification, conflicting with some clergy who supported the movement.
• Victor Emmanuel II promised unification and a national federation and was seen as an ideal leader.
• As ruler of Piedmont, he oversaw its industrialization and modernization.
• Piedmont had a strong monarchy, a constitution, and strong economy as well as civil liberties.
• Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont, expanded the kingdom through compromises.
• Cavour positioned Piedmont as a liberal, constitutional state capable of leading Italy's unification.
• Cavour improved infrastructure, expanded rights, and opposed the clergy, gaining support.
• He formed a secret alliance with Napoleon III to drive Austria out of Italy.
• Cavour provoked Austria into attacking Piedmont, prompting Napoleon III to intervene.
• They defeated Austria at Magenta and Solferino.
• After Napoleon III switched sides and worked with Austria, Cavour ceded Nice and Savoy to France.
• Italians agreed to form a kingdom under Victor Emmanuel.
• Garibaldi, fighting for further nationalism, was secretly supported by Cavour.
• Garibaldi incited a bloody peasant uprising against landlords.
• Cavour prevented war with France and unified northern and southern Italy into one nation.
• A parliamentary monarchy was formed under Victor Emmanuel, though it was barely democratic.

Formation of Nation-States: Germany

• Tensions between Austria and Prussia existed because both wanted control of the German Confederation.
• Economic differences existed as Austria was excluded from the German Customs Union.
• Prussia, with a weak parliament, sought political power.
• The Italian national uprising inspired Prussians.
• When parliament rejected proposed tax increases and army expansion, Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as prime minister.
• Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik and sought power through flexible and pragmatic means.
• A constitutional crisis arose when government funding was paused.
• The Prussian bureaucracy continued collecting taxes, and the army was reorganized.
• Bismarck sought success abroad due to domestic opposition.
• Prussia allied with Austria in a successful war against Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein.
• Bismarck aimed to expel Austria from German affairs.
• Austria was forced out through war, with France, Britain, and others remaining neutral through Bismarck's persuasion.
• Railroads were used to move troops.
• Prussian troops defeated Austria at the Battle of Sadova.
• Bismarck offered Austria generous peace terms, and Austria withdrew.
• Prussia formed the North German Confederation, allying with other states.
• Bismarck used nationalism in a way that impressed from Napoleon III to gain popular support.
• A federal constitution was established, with each state having its own local government, but Bismarck would become president with Wilhem I of Prussia as head of state.
• The federal legislature was elected by universal male suffrage.
• This opened the door to direct popular influence, but the king and army retained ultimate power.

Franco-Prussian War and German Unification

• Bismarck manipulated a diplomatic issue to provoke France into declaring war, planning to use it to unite the South German states.
• The Prussian army defeated the French army and captured Napoleon III.
• France continued fighting after proclaiming a republic.
• After Paris surrendered due to starvation, the South German states agreed to join the new German Empire.
• Wilhelm I was declared king in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
• The German Empire proclamation granted ultimate power to the King of Prussia and his ministers, with a lower house of legislatures elected by universal male suffrage.
• France was penalized with a payment of 5 billion francs and loss of territory.
• This was viewed as a terrible crime, poisoning Franco-German relations.
• The war was seen as a test of the nation and released patriotism in Germany.
• Germans were proud of Bismarck and the army.

Civil War and Nation Building in the United States

• The North was industrialized and had many European immigrants.
• The South relied on farming and plantation owners who relied on slavery and fewer European populations.
• Southerners defended slavery due to their economic dependence on it.
• The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War led to the decision of whether to allow slavery there.
• The Southern states seceded, leading to the Civil War.
• The Homestead Act and 13th Amendment were passed.
• The Homestead act gave western land to settlers
• The 13th amendment granted freedom to slaves, showing the US will always emerge strong.

Russian Modernization

• Russian government elites focused on absolutist rule and disputes with other nations, rejected representative government and nationalism, causing them to lag in modernization.
• Russia was a poor agrarian society with rapid population growth and little industrialization.
• Serfdom was a major issue.
• Growth of protest movements (Marxists and liberals who wanted constitutions)
• Russian defeat in the Crimean War highlighted the need for reform.
• The war involved Middle Eastern disputes between Russia and France over Christian possessions, leading to British and French support for the Ottomans to oppose Russian expansion.
• Incompetent leadership and modern weaponry were factors.
• Russia suffered heavy losses, but the war saw professional women nurses for the first time (Florence Nightingale).
• Mortality rates went down due to sanitation efforts.
• The French alliance defeated Russia in 1856, disrupting the European balance of power established at the Congress of Vienna.
• Austria did not support Russia, leading to hostility and conflict between major powers.
• Russian leaders became convinced of their backwardness.
• Military reform and railroads were deemed necessary.
• Tsar Alexander II initiated modernization and social changes.
• Serfdom was abolished in 1861, allowing peasants to purchase half the land they cultivated.
• Village communes were assigned large payments, making it difficult to leave.
• A new institution of local government was created (zemstvos), using a three-class system in elections.
• Traditional bureaucracy and local nobility were still used
• Independent courts and equality before the law were established, but censorship remained.
• Economic modernization was more successful.
• Transportation and industry helped the military and facilitated grain exports to finance further development.
• The Trans-Siberian Railway facilitated migration to the east, grain transport, and urban food supply.
• Russia expanded by seizing land in the Caucasus (Islamic) and through rapid expansion to the south and east.
• Conservatives were outraged by Alexander's efforts to suppress nationalism of Poles, Ukrainians, and Baltic peoples.
• Tsar Alexander II was assassinated marking the end of the reform era.
• Alexander III continued economic modernization, but was reactionary.
• Finance Minister Sergei Witte doubled state-owned railways, developed tariffs, and strengthened finances.
• Foreigners were encouraged to build industries in Russia, particularly in Southern Russia.
• Russia continued needed territorial expansions (empiricism)

Russian Revolution of 1905

• Conflict with Japan arose over North Korea.
• Nicholas II ignored warnings and launched an attack on Port Arthur.
• Japan won the war, leading to Russia's surrender and political upheaval.
• Business classes wanted representative government
• Industrial workers were in illegal unions
• Minorities such as Poles and Ukrainians wanted self government
• Russia was forced to comply after the "Bloody Sunday" massacre.
• Tsar issues October Manifesto and promised popular elected Duma (parliament)
• Voters elected for the Duma and this was seen as a step backward
• Agrarian reforms (break down villages) and wanted them to move to industry Banking and education reformed
• STolyphin’s necktie

Ottoman Empire Reform and Readjustment

• Its borders always suffered conflict
• Russia forced the Ottoman Empire to grant independence to Serbia and Greece and France fought for Algeria
• Muhammad Ali, governor of Egypt, restored Islamic culture and conquered new lands.
• Ali was a soldier-politician who ruled Egypt in the name of the sultan and modernized agriculture and industry.
• Challenged Ottoman sultan
• His troops occupied Syria and Palestine, compelling the Ottomans to seek European support.
• Europeans perferred a weak Ottoman empire because they knew Ali would be a strong leader
• Liberal Ottoman statesmen launched the Tanzimat to modernize the empire.
• Sultan Abdul issued Imperial Restrict, calling for equality before the law, regardless of religion, and private land ownership.
• Leaders adopted free trade policies and removed tariffs on foreign imports which promoted liberal-capitalism and elites prospered
• They were Forced to borrow from British and French bankers, the empire went bankrupt.
• Tanzimat reforms did not measure up to western imperialists.
• Equality before the law increased religious disputes (encouraged by European powers) looking to intervene and help when weak
• Committee of Union and Progress united reform movements across the empire.
• The Young Turks seized power and made sultan put in place new reforms.  

Changes in Government and Governance After 1871

• European domestic politics had a new common framework: the nation-state.
• There was an increase in mass politics and loyalties to the nation.
• Hard-fought election campaigns emerged due to diverse political groups.
• The national state began to offer free education, welfare, and public health services, which increased national pride and loyalty.
• Women's right to vote was demanded.
• Men were required to serve in the military.
• Income taxes were introduced.

Comparative Case Studies of Nation-States

• The German Empire used a federal system, with Prussia and small states with separate legislatures.
• Bismarck relied on the national liberals for economic growth and unification of country
• He Attacked on Catholic church, limited success in Prussia with Kulterkamf when it attempted to make the catholic church subject to gov. Control.
• Governments followed Bismark’s lead to Returnto protectionism
• Bismarcks social democracy helped the sick and unemployed, injured, and retired workers.
• Increasing issue with socialism and growth of SPB
• Wilhem the second couldn't get workers to renounce socialism
• Social democrats was Germany's largest single party.
• The Franco-Prussian War divided France.
• National election sent mostly conservationists and monarchists.
• Formed new national unity under banner of republic (luck)
• Wanted allegiance of next generation, expanded colonial empire and legalized trade unions.
• Limited acceptance of modern world by Pope (eased conflicts between church and state)
• Intellectuals are mad during the Dreyfus affair
• France expanded Colonial empire.
• Britain had been guided from liberalism to democracy and extended vote to all working class males
• Queen Victoria had a symbolic role in Britain's growing constitutional monarchy (symbolized strength and stability in era of rapid change )
• Extensive social welfare measures were passed inspired by welsh
• Refusal to give women the right to vote
• Irish revolutionary movement pushed nationalist sentiments.
• COnflicting Nationalisms created by Irish catholics and protestants

Nationalism: Costs and Benefits

• The dilemma of nation-states trying to obtain their people's loyalty.
• The unification of Italy and Germany had brought together people with many differences, religious, traditions, and languages were differences.
• National belonging became widely accepted. Centralized institutions reached even lowliest citices, universal military conscription exposed people to patriotic values, free education spoke a common language and taught national triumphs
• Common currency in Italy and Germany, and national post office (regional differences eroded) National solidarity promoted by famous leaders on postage stamps
• Intellectuals and politicians promoted national pride Scholars uncovered national identity in shared language, customs, territory and religion
• Created New symbols and rituals

Social Changes and Conflicts

• Women faced discrimination in employment, education, and legal rights.
• They demanded the nation-state declare equality for the sexes.
• Married women lacked legal rights, as their property and wages belonged to their husbands.
• Napoleonic code=principle of female subordination
• They went on hunger strikes and they received the right to vote in 1919
• Women inspired utopian ideals of society
• Racism rose with nationalism, and they thought race was hereditary or blood.
• Jewish people had won emancipation in Westen and central Europe (legal and civil equality)
• Antisemitism was popular among conservatives, and anti-nationalists
• Karl Lueger used antisemitism to win with his Christian conservative party and limited jewish immigration from the Russian empire
• Zionisum= Jewish political movement who believed that Christian europeans would never overcome their hatred.

Evolution of Revolutionary Marxism

• Socialist groups grew rapidly, troubling upper classes.
• Marxisum became more mainstream
• Used meetings to spread doctonies of socialist revolutions.
• Many workers joined, but many middle class also feared the growing socialism’s violence Labour unions got workplace reforms.
• Workers were also pretty patriotic so did not necessarily want a whole new government.
• Workers standard of living was beginning to rise
• Tend toward moderation, unions were winning rights to exits, but still couldn't strike
• Some of this helped promote more revolutions
• Marxist predictions had been proven false
• Moderation in France, Jean Jaures reputed reviosionsium was optimistic and gradualist
• Russian socialists were the most radical
• German talked revolution (trade unions influence) and French understood it was weak but still talked revolution.
• Britain=Socialist but non-marxist party was committed to gradual reform.