Muscles, Aging, & Paralysis

• Muscles that compress cheeks inward are called Buccinator, used for whistling or kissing
• Closing the jaw involves temporalis, masseter, lateral, and medial pterygoid muscles.
• Orbicularis oris is around the mouth, closing and pursing lips
• Depressor anguli oris pulls the lower lip down and back
• Occipitofrontalis draws the eyebrows together
• Orbicularis oculi facilitates blinking, squinting, and eye protection
• Hand and finger movement involves flexor carpi radialis/ulnaris and extensor digitorum
• Biceps femoris supports knee flexion and hip extension
• Hip flexion uses iliopsoas, tensor fasciae latae, and rectus femoris
• Vastus medialis, intermedius, and lateralis facilitate knee extension

Aging Effects on Muscles

• Muscle mass declines

• Muscle contraction responses slow

• Stamina decreases

• Recovery time increases

• Flaccid paralysis makes muscles unable to contract

• Spastic paralysis causes muscles to contract without relaxing

• Torticollis/Wry Neck results from sternocleidomastoid muscle injury, correctable with exercise

• Fibromyalgia is chronic muscle pain syndrome with no cure

• Tendinitis is tendon inflammation from overuse

Major Functions of the Nervous System

• Receiving sensory inputs

• Integrating information

• Controlling muscles and glands

• Maintaining homeostasis

• Establishing and maintaining mental activity

• CNS includes the brain and spinal cord

• PNS is all nervous tissue outside the CNS

• The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls involuntary bodily functions

• The Somatic Nervous System controls voluntary bodily functions

• The Sensory/Afferent Division sends sensory information to the CNS

• The Motor/Efferent Division sends signals from the CNS to muscles and glands

• Synapses are junctions where neurons interact, releasing neurotransmitters

• Myelin Sheaths are protective coverings formed by oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS)

• Spinal Cord extends to the 2nd lumbar vertebra

• The Brain consists of the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum

• Meninges protect the Central Nervous System

• Nodes of Ranvier are axon gaps between myelin, crucial for nerve impulse

• Dendrites bring information to neurons

• Axons transmit nerve impulses

• Neurotransmitters transmit signals across synapses

• The Somatic motor division carries information to skeletal muscle.

• Sensory neurons carry incoming signals to the brain and spinal cord

• Motor neurons carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

• Interneurons relay nerve impulses between neurons

• Neuroglial cells support, protect, and nourish neurons

• Astrocytes form the blood-brain barrier

• Nerve impulses are electric signals transmitted across neurons

• Satellite cells regulate the chemical environment in PNS ganglia

• Continuous Conduction occurs in unmyelinated axons

• Saltatory Conduction speeds impulses in myelinated axons

• Polarization is the resting state of a neuron

• Working memory supports immediate task performance

• Short-term memory can retain information briefly through increased synaptic transmission

• Long-term memory can store memories indefinitely

• Declarative/Explicit memory involves retaining facts and emotions

• Procedural/Reflexive memory involves motor skills development

• Memory Engrams/Traces are involved in long-term memory retention

• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) protects the Central Nervous System

• Alzheimer's Disease causes dementia and memory loss

• Aphasia causes speech or language comprehension deficits

• Encephalitis is brain inflammation from viral or bacterial infections

• Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges caused by viral/bacterial infections

Functions of Blood

• Transports gases, nutrients, and wastes

• Transports processed molecules

• Transports regulatory molecules like hormones and enzymes

• Regulates pH (7.35-7.45) and osmosis

• Maintains body temperature

• Protects against foreign substances

• Facilitates clot formation

• Blood is connective tissue with plasma and formed elements

• Plasma is the liquid component of blood

• Albumin regulates water balance via osmosis

• Globulin includes antibodies and transports molecules

• Fibrinogen enables blood clot formation

• Serum is plasma without clotting factors

• Hemoglobin has globin chains & heme groups

• Proerythroblasts are stem cells for RBCs, stimulated by low oxygen levels

• Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production by the kidney

• Bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin breakdown

• White Blood Cells/Leukocytes protect via ameboid movement

• Granulocytes have cytoplasmic granules

• Agranulocytes have small granules

• Pus contains dead neutrophils and cell debris from infections

• Platelets/Thrombocytes come from megakaryocytes in bone marrow

• A transfusion moves blood between individuals

• A donor gives blood and a recipients receives blood

• Infusion introduces fluids like saline into the blood

• Transfusion Reactions involve clumping of blood cells

• Agglutination is cell clumping due to antibody-antigen binding

• Hemolysis ruptures RBCs due to incompatible antigens and antibodies

• Leukopenia reduces WBCs from decreased production or destruction due to drugs, radiation, tumors etc

• Leukocytosis increases WBCs often due to bacterial infections

• Leukemia is the abnormal WBC production in bone marrow

• Thrombocytopenia reduces platelets causing bleeding

• Aplastic Anemia damages red marrow reducing RBC, WBC, and platelet production

Main Regulatory Functions of the Endocrine System

• Metabolism

• Controlling food intake & digestion

• Tissue development

• Ion regulation

• Water balance

• Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

• Controlling blood glucose and other nutrients

• Controlling reproductive functions

• Uterine contractions & milk release

• Immune system regulation

• The Endocrine System includes hormone-secreting glands and cells

• Hormones are chemical messengers in the bloodstream that act on target tissues

• Negative Feedback prevents excess hormone secretion

• Positive Feedback promotes further hormone secretion

• Receptors bind hormones

• Receptor Sites are specific cell locations where hormones bind

• Specificity dictates the hormone type that can bind to a receptor

• Chemoreceptors sense chemicals

• Mechanoreceptors sense pressure or movement

• The Sclera is the eye's outer protective layer

• The Retina is the light-sensitive inner lining of the eyeball

• Conjunctivitis is conjunctiva inflammation

• Glaucoma damages the optic nerve from fluid pressure

• Cataracts cloud the eye's lens

• Hyperopia causes blurry vision for nearby objects

• Eustachian tubes connect the middle ear to the nasal cavity

• Semicircular canals manage balance in the inner ear.

• Otitis Media is a middle ear infection

• Labyrinthitis inflames the inner ear

• Tinnitus causes "ringing in the ear"

• Otosclerosis causes progressive hearing loss due to abnormal bone growth

• Ciliary muscles alter lens shape

• The Endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete hormones to regulate bodily process

• Hormones are chemical messengers

• Negative Feedback is a response that counteracts the original stimulus

• Prostaglandins are local hormones, that do not enter the bloodstream

• Hypersecretion is excessive hormone production

• The Pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland

• The Thyroid regulates metabolism

• The Adrenal gland secretes steroidal hormones

• Growth Hormone promotes bone growth

• Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary

• The Hypothalamus links the endocrine and nervous systems

• Tetany causes muscle spasms due to low calcium

• Cushing Syndrome causes abnormal fat deposits from excessive cortisol

• The Pancreas functions as both endocrine and exocrine gland to produces insulin and glucagon

• Glucagon increases blood glucose level

• Progesterone supports the menstrual cycle

• Estrogen is a female hormone secreted by the ovary

• Eosinophils counter parasitic worms, allergies, and asthma

• Monocytes become phagocytes that eliminate foreign material

• Neutrophils phagocytize bacteria

• Aplastic Anemia damages red marrow reducing RBC and platelet production

• Pulmonary Circulation is the right side of the heart pumping blood to the lungs

• Systemic Circulation is the left side of the heart pumping blood to all tissues

• Pericardial Fluid reduces friction as the heart moves

• The Aorta sends oxygenated blood from the heart to the body

• The Pulmonary artery sends deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

• The normal blood pH is 7.35-7.45

• ECG records electrical activity in the heart

• Myocardial infarction or heart attack results from a blocked coronary artery

• Heart Failure weakens the heart muscle preventing it from pumping sufficient blood

• Strategies to prevent heart disease are to avoid stress, eat nutritious food and to stop smoking

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart

• Veins return blood to heart

• Arterioles allow transition between arteries and capillaries

• Raynaud Syndrome involves exaggerated vasoconstriction in response to emotions or cold

• Atherosclerosis is the deposition of fatlike substance containing cholesterol in the walls of arteries

• Vasoconstriction decreases blood flow by contracting smooth muscles in blood vessels

• Valves prevent the backflow of blood in veins

• The Vena Cava carries deoxygenated blood to the heart

• Axillary arteries carries oxygenated blood to the armpit region

• Coronary arteries supply the heart wall with oxygenated blood

• Vasodilation is when smooth muscles within blood vessels relaxes and increases blood flow to the extremities

• Venules connect veins and capillaries to drain blood back to the heart