Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the driving force for the movement of water in osmosis?
What is the driving force for the movement of water in osmosis?
- Electrical potential difference
- Concentration of carrier molecule
- Pressure difference
- Difference in solute concentration across the membrane (correct)
Which type of transport requires energy in the form of ATP?
Which type of transport requires energy in the form of ATP?
- Primary active transport (correct)
- Osmosis
- Secondary active transport
- Facilitated diffusion
What is the function of Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?
What is the function of Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?
- Pumping K+ out and Na+ in
- Maintaining low intracellular K+ concentration
- Pumping Na+ out and K+ in (correct)
- Establishing positive electrical voltage inside the cells
Which ion does the H+ ATPase concentrate where it is needed?
Which ion does the H+ ATPase concentrate where it is needed?
What is the driving force for co-transport in secondary active transport?
What is the driving force for co-transport in secondary active transport?
What happens if a membrane is permeable to a specific ion and the Nernst potential exactly balances the diffusion potential for that ion?
What happens if a membrane is permeable to a specific ion and the Nernst potential exactly balances the diffusion potential for that ion?
What is the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a non-signaling neuron?
What is the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a non-signaling neuron?
Osmotic pressure is the driving force for the movement of what substance?
Osmotic pressure is the driving force for the movement of what substance?
What type of transport does not move against electrochemical gradient?
What type of transport does not move against electrochemical gradient?
Which process involves the 'dropping off' of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies?
Which process involves the 'dropping off' of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies?
What type of cell death does not involve inflammatory changes?
What type of cell death does not involve inflammatory changes?
What is the main feature of necrosis?
What is the main feature of necrosis?
Which process can lead to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury if dysregulated?
Which process can lead to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury if dysregulated?
What is the main function of autophagy?
What is the main function of autophagy?
Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?
Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?
What are the postmortem changes associated with postmortem autolysis?
What are the postmortem changes associated with postmortem autolysis?
What is a key factor contributing to the loss of integrity of the cell membrane in cellular injury?
What is a key factor contributing to the loss of integrity of the cell membrane in cellular injury?
What is the process of making the membrane potential less negative or more positive called?
What is the process of making the membrane potential less negative or more positive called?
Which ion flows into the cell during the upstroke of the action potential, leading to depolarization?
Which ion flows into the cell during the upstroke of the action potential, leading to depolarization?
What is the structure on the muscle fiber where the synapse occurs between a myelinated axon of a motor neuron and the muscle fiber?
What is the structure on the muscle fiber where the synapse occurs between a myelinated axon of a motor neuron and the muscle fiber?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate in a neuromuscular junction?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate in a neuromuscular junction?
What is the role of acetylcholine (ACh) in skeletal muscle excitation?
What is the role of acetylcholine (ACh) in skeletal muscle excitation?
Which drug competes for the ACh binding site and blocks nicotinic ACh receptors?
Which drug competes for the ACh binding site and blocks nicotinic ACh receptors?
What is the purpose of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the purpose of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the portion of the action potential following repolarization where the membrane potential is more negative than its resting membrane potential called?
What is the portion of the action potential following repolarization where the membrane potential is more negative than its resting membrane potential called?
Which substance surrounds the nerve axon forming a myelin sheath?
Which substance surrounds the nerve axon forming a myelin sheath?
'Saltatory conduction' occurs at which sites along myelinated nerve fibers?
'Saltatory conduction' occurs at which sites along myelinated nerve fibers?
Which drugs bind and activate nicotinic ACh receptors, resulting in prolonged effects due to lack of destruction by AChE?
Which drugs bind and activate nicotinic ACh receptors, resulting in prolonged effects due to lack of destruction by AChE?
What prevents breakdown of ACh and prolongs depolarization at the neuromuscular junction?
What prevents breakdown of ACh and prolongs depolarization at the neuromuscular junction?
What is the functional contracting unit of the muscle fiber?
What is the functional contracting unit of the muscle fiber?
Which protein is responsible for blocking the myosin head from attaching to actin?
Which protein is responsible for blocking the myosin head from attaching to actin?
What regulates the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle?
What regulates the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle?
What causes atrophy in cells?
What causes atrophy in cells?
What type of hyperplasia is considered abnormal?
What type of hyperplasia is considered abnormal?
What is the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?
What is the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?
During ischemic period, what causes excessive ATP consumption in cells?
During ischemic period, what causes excessive ATP consumption in cells?
What process causes additional injury during restoration of oxygen in reperfusion injury?
What process causes additional injury during restoration of oxygen in reperfusion injury?
What triggers physiological hypertrophy in cells?
What triggers physiological hypertrophy in cells?
What protein is responsible for 'nailing on' tropomyosin and releasing it when calcium attaches?
What protein is responsible for 'nailing on' tropomyosin and releasing it when calcium attaches?
What results from increased rate of cellular division and can be physiological or pathological?
What results from increased rate of cellular division and can be physiological or pathological?
What initiates the contractile process in smooth muscle by interacting with many types of receptor proteins?
What initiates the contractile process in smooth muscle by interacting with many types of receptor proteins?
Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Which of the following is a characteristic of hypoxia caused by carbon monoxide?
Which of the following is a characteristic of hypoxia caused by carbon monoxide?
What is the most common form of cellular injury?
What is the most common form of cellular injury?
What is the primary cause of harm to cells in infiltrations/accumulations?
What is the primary cause of harm to cells in infiltrations/accumulations?
Which manifestation is associated with water infiltration into cells?
Which manifestation is associated with water infiltration into cells?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
Which organ is primarily affected by ethanol-induced nutritional deficiencies?
Which organ is primarily affected by ethanol-induced nutritional deficiencies?
What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?
What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?
"Dystrophic calcification" and "metastatic calcification" are associated with the accumulation of which substance in cells?
"Dystrophic calcification" and "metastatic calcification" are associated with the accumulation of which substance in cells?
"Horizontal transmission" and "vertical transmission" are related to which effect of radiation exposure?
"Horizontal transmission" and "vertical transmission" are related to which effect of radiation exposure?
"Decreased ATP" and "failure of pumps" are characteristic features of cellular injury due to which condition?
"Decreased ATP" and "failure of pumps" are characteristic features of cellular injury due to which condition?
Which type of feedback promotes stability and restores homeostasis?
Which type of feedback promotes stability and restores homeostasis?
What is the main function of proteins in the membrane?
What is the main function of proteins in the membrane?
Which substance is known for decreasing membrane fluidity and permeability?
Which substance is known for decreasing membrane fluidity and permeability?
What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?
What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?
Which molecules are processed into acetyl-coA for ATP production?
Which molecules are processed into acetyl-coA for ATP production?
Which process produces 38 ATP per molecule of glucose degraded?
Which process produces 38 ATP per molecule of glucose degraded?
What is the primary function of ATP in cellular processes?
What is the primary function of ATP in cellular processes?
Which molecules are more abundant intracellularly?
Which molecules are more abundant intracellularly?
What type of substances move more readily through the membrane?
What type of substances move more readily through the membrane?
Which type of transport requires no energy or carrier?
Which type of transport requires no energy or carrier?
What is the main characteristic of un-gated ion channel movement?
What is the main characteristic of un-gated ion channel movement?
Which type of tumor is usually encapsulated with connective tissue and contains fairly well-differentiated cells and well-organized stroma?
Which type of tumor is usually encapsulated with connective tissue and contains fairly well-differentiated cells and well-organized stroma?
What is the term for the loss of cellular differentiation in malignant tumors?
What is the term for the loss of cellular differentiation in malignant tumors?
Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?
Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?
What term refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma?
What term refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma?
What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?
What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?
What characteristic differentiates malignant tumors from benign tumors?
What characteristic differentiates malignant tumors from benign tumors?
Which type of tumor lacks a capsule and grows to invade nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures?
Which type of tumor lacks a capsule and grows to invade nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures?
What is the process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell called?
What is the process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell called?
"Carcinoma" is named by originating from which type of tissue?
"Carcinoma" is named by originating from which type of tissue?
Which cells are thought to cause relapse and recurrence in cancer treatment?
Which cells are thought to cause relapse and recurrence in cancer treatment?
What is the term for the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?
What is the term for the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?
What is the primary characteristic that sets carcinoma in situ (CIS) apart from invasive and metastatic cancers?
What is the primary characteristic that sets carcinoma in situ (CIS) apart from invasive and metastatic cancers?
Which syndrome is characterized by elevated stature, moderate degree of mental impairment, and an elevated number of repeated DNA sequences?
Which syndrome is characterized by elevated stature, moderate degree of mental impairment, and an elevated number of repeated DNA sequences?
What is the risk for each child if both parents affected by an autosomal dominant disease are heterozygotes?
What is the risk for each child if both parents affected by an autosomal dominant disease are heterozygotes?
Which disease is characterized by delayed age of onset, incomplete penetrance, and variable expressivity, and is considered the most common recessive disease?
Which disease is characterized by delayed age of onset, incomplete penetrance, and variable expressivity, and is considered the most common recessive disease?
What does penetrance refer to in genetics?
What does penetrance refer to in genetics?
What causes variation in severity of Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?
What causes variation in severity of Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?
What is the primary function of carrier detection tests through genetic testing?
What is the primary function of carrier detection tests through genetic testing?
What is the primary role of modifier genes in genetics?
What is the primary role of modifier genes in genetics?
Which gene mutation leads to tumor formation in Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?
Which gene mutation leads to tumor formation in Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?
What causes variation in severity in diseases with variable expressivity?
What causes variation in severity in diseases with variable expressivity?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
What is the role of telomeres in cancer?
What is the role of telomeres in cancer?
Which process is associated with the spread of cancer cells to distant tissues and organs?
Which process is associated with the spread of cancer cells to distant tissues and organs?
What is the basic function of tumor suppressor genes?
What is the basic function of tumor suppressor genes?
Which protein, when mutated, can turn from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene, stimulating cell growth even when growth factors are missing?
Which protein, when mutated, can turn from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene, stimulating cell growth even when growth factors are missing?
What is the significance of clonal proliferation in cancer development?
What is the significance of clonal proliferation in cancer development?
Which mechanism causes high rate of chromosomal loss, heterozygosity, and chromosomal amplification in cancer?
Which mechanism causes high rate of chromosomal loss, heterozygosity, and chromosomal amplification in cancer?
Which factor stimulates new blood vessel growth to promote cancer cell and tumor growth?
Which factor stimulates new blood vessel growth to promote cancer cell and tumor growth?
What is the function of caretaker genes?
What is the function of caretaker genes?
What is the role of cytokine release from inflammatory cells in cancer development?
What is the role of cytokine release from inflammatory cells in cancer development?
What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?
What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?
Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?
Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?
What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer according to the text?
What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer according to the text?
Which type of cancer is associated with HPV type 16 and 18?
Which type of cancer is associated with HPV type 16 and 18?
What is the primary cause of basal cell carcinoma according to the text?
What is the primary cause of basal cell carcinoma according to the text?
Which type of radiation is associated with acute leukemias, thyroid, breast, lung, stomach, colon, and esophageal cancers?
Which type of radiation is associated with acute leukemias, thyroid, breast, lung, stomach, colon, and esophageal cancers?
Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?
Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?
What is the primary characteristic of paraneoplastic syndromes according to the text?
What is the primary characteristic of paraneoplastic syndromes according to the text?
Which substance is linked to indoor air pollution and associated with lung cancer?
Which substance is linked to indoor air pollution and associated with lung cancer?
Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?
Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?
What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?
What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?
What is the most common form of cellular injury?
What is the most common form of cellular injury?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?
Which of the following is a characteristic of aneuploidy?
Which of the following is a characteristic of aneuploidy?
During transcription, what is the role of RNA polymerase?
During transcription, what is the role of RNA polymerase?
What is the main consequence of a frameshift mutation?
What is the main consequence of a frameshift mutation?
Which syndrome is characterized by short stature, webbing of the neck, and widely spaced nipples?
Which syndrome is characterized by short stature, webbing of the neck, and widely spaced nipples?
What is a common outcome of Robertsonian translocation?
What is a common outcome of Robertsonian translocation?
Which statement best describes aneuploidy?
Which statement best describes aneuploidy?
What is the primary function of transcription factors during gene expression?
What is the primary function of transcription factors during gene expression?
Which type of mutation can have profound consequences and lead to serious genetic diseases?
Which type of mutation can have profound consequences and lead to serious genetic diseases?
Flashcards
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure
The pressure that drives water movement through semipermeable membranes.
Active Transport
Active Transport
The movement of substances against their electrochemical gradient using energy (ATP).
Sodium Potassium Pump
Sodium Potassium Pump
Na+ K+ ATPase, maintains ion balance by pumping Na+ out and K+ in.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration
Hydrogen Ion Concentration
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Secondary Active Transport
Secondary Active Transport
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Nernst Potential
Nernst Potential
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Resting Membrane Potential
Resting Membrane Potential
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Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis
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Necrosis
Necrosis
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Autophagy
Autophagy
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Metaplasia
Metaplasia
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Cancer Cell Morphogenesis
Cancer Cell Morphogenesis
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Benign Tumors
Benign Tumors
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Malignant Tumors
Malignant Tumors
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Saltatory Conduction
Saltatory Conduction
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Hyperpolarization
Hyperpolarization
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Action Potential
Action Potential
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
Acetylcholine (ACh)
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Myelin
Myelin
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Dantrolene
Dantrolene
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Fibrosis
Fibrosis
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Oxidative Stress
Oxidative Stress
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Telomeres
Telomeres
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Clonal Proliferation
Clonal Proliferation
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Cytokines
Cytokines
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Lead Poisoning
Lead Poisoning
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Carcinogens
Carcinogens
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Study Notes
Osmosis and Membrane Transport
- Osmotic pressure drives the movement of water through semipermeable membranes.
- Active transport requires energy in the form of ATP.
- Na+ K+ ATPase, or Sodium Potassium Pump, maintains cellular ion balance by pumping sodium out and potassium into the cell.
- H+ ATPase concentrates hydrogen ions where they are needed for various physiological processes.
- Co-transport in secondary active transport is driven by the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport.
Ion Channels and Membrane Potential
- If a membrane is permeable to a specific ion and the Nernst potential balances the diffusion potential, there will be no net movement of that ion across the membrane.
- The resting membrane potential (RMP) of a non-signaling neuron typically ranges from -70 to -90 mV.
- Osmotic pressure drives the movement of solvent, primarily water, in biological systems.
- Passive transport, including facilitated diffusion, does not move substances against the electrochemical gradient.
Cell Death Mechanisms
- Apoptosis involves the removal of cellular debris through the formation of apoptotic bodies.
- Apoptosis does not lead to inflammatory changes, in contrast to necrosis, which is characterized by cell rupture and inflammation.
- Necrosis is marked by cell swelling, membrane rupture, and subsequent inflammation.
Autophagy and Cellular Changes
- Dysregulated autophagy can contribute to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury.
- Autophagy primarily aids in the degradation of cellular components to maintain cellular homeostasis.
- Progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures characterize conditions like fibrosis.
Postmortem Changes and Cellular Injury
- Postmortem autolysis involves the breakdown of cells post-death due to enzymatic activity.
- Loss of cell membrane integrity during injury is often due to oxidative stress and damage.
- Making the membrane potential less negative is called depolarization.
Action Potential and Neuromuscular Junction
- Sodium ions flow into the cell during the upstroke of the action potential, causing depolarization.
- At the neuromuscular junction, the motor end plate serves as the synapse for communication between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
- Acetylcholine (ACh) facilitates skeletal muscle excitation by binding to receptors on the muscle cell membrane.
- Dantrolene, a drug, blocks nicotinic ACh receptors, preventing ACh action.
- Myelin enhances nerve conduction speed by insulating the axon.
Ion Movement and Channel Characteristics
- The phase following repolarization where the membrane potential is more negative than resting potential is the hyperpolarization phase.
- Myelin sheath surrounds the nerve axon to ensure efficient signal transmission.
- 'Saltatory conduction' occurs at the nodes of Ranvier along myelinated nerve fibers.
- Certain drugs can activate nicotinic ACh receptors, prolonging ACh effects by resisting breakdown by acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
Muscle Physiology and Dysregulation
- The functional contracting unit of muscle fibers is the sarcomere.
- Tropomyosin blocks the myosin head from binding to actin.
- Interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle is regulated by calcium ions.
- Atrophy can occur due to disuse, denervation, or decreased blood supply.
Cellular Changes and Injuries
- Abnormal hyperplasia may indicate pathological conditions.
- Metaplasia refers to the reversible change where one mature cell type is replaced by another.
- Excessive ATP consumption during ischemia may lead to cell injury.
Cancer and Genetics
- Cancer cell morphogenesis may include various genetic alterations and tumor suppressor gene dysfunction.
- With both parents being heterozygotes of an autosomal dominant disease, the risk for affected offspring is 75%.
- Delayed onset and variable expressivity characterize certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis.
- Telomeres protect chromosome ends and are linked to cellular aging and cancer.
- Clonal proliferation refers to the expansion of genetically identical cells contributing to tumor growth.
Tumor Characteristics
- Benign tumors are usually encapsulated with well-differentiated cells, while malignant tumors invade adjacent tissues and lack a defined capsule.
- Carcinoma originates from epithelial tissues; carcinoma in situ remains localized without invasion.
- Modifier genes can influence the expression and severity of genetic traits and diseases.
Radiation and Environmental Impacts
- Radiation that removes electrons can cause DNA damage and cancer development.
- Lead poisoning can cause neurological and vascular dysfunction.
- HPV types 16 and 18 are associated with cervical cancers, while chronic exposure to certain carcinogens leads to lung cancers.
Notable Associations and Effects
- Cytokine release from inflammatory cells may promote tumor growth and progression.
- RAS oncogenes play a critical role in cell proliferation and cancer development.
- Acute exposure to high doses of radiation can lead to various cancers, including leukemia and solid tumors.
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