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Questions and Answers

What is the driving force for the movement of water in osmosis?

  • Electrical potential difference
  • Concentration of carrier molecule
  • Pressure difference
  • Difference in solute concentration across the membrane (correct)

    • Which type of transport requires energy in the form of ATP?

  • Primary active transport (correct)
  • Osmosis
  • Secondary active transport
  • Facilitated diffusion

    • What is the function of Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?

  • Pumping K+ out and Na+ in
  • Maintaining low intracellular K+ concentration
  • Pumping Na+ out and K+ in (correct)
  • Establishing positive electrical voltage inside the cells

    • Which ion does the H+ ATPase concentrate where it is needed?

    <p>H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the driving force for co-transport in secondary active transport?

    <p>Movement of Na+ down its concentration gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens if a membrane is permeable to a specific ion and the Nernst potential exactly balances the diffusion potential for that ion?

    <p>No further net diffusion occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a non-signaling neuron?

    <p>-70 to -85 mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Osmotic pressure is the driving force for the movement of what substance?

    <p><code>Water</code></p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of transport does not move against electrochemical gradient?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the 'dropping off' of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell death does not involve inflammatory changes?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main feature of necrosis?

    <p>Inflammatory changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process can lead to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury if dysregulated?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of autophagy?

    <p>Recycling center; self-destructive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?

    <p>Aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the postmortem changes associated with postmortem autolysis?

    <p>Reduced temperature, purple skin discoloration, putrefactive changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor contributing to the loss of integrity of the cell membrane in cellular injury?

    <p>ATP depletion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of making the membrane potential less negative or more positive called?

    <p>Depolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion flows into the cell during the upstroke of the action potential, leading to depolarization?

    <p>Sodium (Na+)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure on the muscle fiber where the synapse occurs between a myelinated axon of a motor neuron and the muscle fiber?

    <p>Motor end plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stops depolarization at the motor end plate in a neuromuscular junction?

    <p>AChE breaking down ACh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of acetylcholine (ACh) in skeletal muscle excitation?

    <p>Activates nicotinic ACh receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug competes for the ACh binding site and blocks nicotinic ACh receptors?

    <p>Curariform drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of myelin in nerve fibers?

    <p>Acts as an electrical insulator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the portion of the action potential following repolarization where the membrane potential is more negative than its resting membrane potential called?

    <p>Undershoot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance surrounds the nerve axon forming a myelin sheath?

    <p>'Schwann cells'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Saltatory conduction' occurs at which sites along myelinated nerve fibers?

    <p>'Node of Ranvier'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drugs bind and activate nicotinic ACh receptors, resulting in prolonged effects due to lack of destruction by AChE?

    <p>'ACh-like drugs'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What prevents breakdown of ACh and prolongs depolarization at the neuromuscular junction?

    <p>'Anti-AChE'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional contracting unit of the muscle fiber?

    <p>Sarcomere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein is responsible for blocking the myosin head from attaching to actin?

    <p>Tropomyosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What regulates the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle?

    <p>Calmodulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes atrophy in cells?

    <p>Decreased workload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hyperplasia is considered abnormal?

    <p>Pathologic hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?

    <p>Metaplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During ischemic period, what causes excessive ATP consumption in cells?

    <p>Accumulation of purine catabolites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process causes additional injury during restoration of oxygen in reperfusion injury?

    <p>Mitochondrial calcium overload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers physiological hypertrophy in cells?

    <p>Increased demand and stimulation by hormones and growth factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What protein is responsible for 'nailing on' tropomyosin and releasing it when calcium attaches?

    <p>Troponin T</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results from increased rate of cellular division and can be physiological or pathological?

    <p>Hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the contractile process in smooth muscle by interacting with many types of receptor proteins?

    <p>ACh and norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?

    <p>Peripheral nervous system effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of hypoxia caused by carbon monoxide?

    <p>symptoms include headache, tinnitus, and nausea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common form of cellular injury?

    <p>Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of harm to cells in infiltrations/accumulations?

    <p>Crowding organelles and excessive metabolites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which manifestation is associated with water infiltration into cells?

    <p>&quot;Oncosis&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?

    <p>Enhances intracellular calcium concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is primarily affected by ethanol-induced nutritional deficiencies?

    <p>Brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?

    <p>&quot;Ionized radiation&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "Dystrophic calcification" and "metastatic calcification" are associated with the accumulation of which substance in cells?

    <p>&quot;Calcium&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "Horizontal transmission" and "vertical transmission" are related to which effect of radiation exposure?

    <p>&quot;Genetic changes&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "Decreased ATP" and "failure of pumps" are characteristic features of cellular injury due to which condition?

    <p>Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of feedback promotes stability and restores homeostasis?

    <p>Negative feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of proteins in the membrane?

    <p>Provide selectivity to the membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance is known for decreasing membrane fluidity and permeability?

    <p>Cholesterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecules are processed into acetyl-coA for ATP production?

    <p>Glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process produces 38 ATP per molecule of glucose degraded?

    <p>Aerobic process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ATP in cellular processes?

    <p>Energy transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecules are more abundant intracellularly?

    <p>$K$ (Potassium)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of substances move more readily through the membrane?

    <p>Lipid soluble (non-charged) substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport requires no energy or carrier?

    <p>Simple diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of un-gated ion channel movement?

    <p>Dependent on substance size and shape only</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tumor is usually encapsulated with connective tissue and contains fairly well-differentiated cells and well-organized stroma?

    <p>Benign tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the loss of cellular differentiation in malignant tumors?

    <p>Anaplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?

    <p>Activation of proto-oncogenes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma?

    <p>Carcinoma in situ (CIS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of radiation capable of removing orbital electrons from atoms?

    <p>Ionizing radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic differentiates malignant tumors from benign tumors?

    <p>Rapid growth rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tumor lacks a capsule and grows to invade nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures?

    <p>Malignant tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell called?

    <p>Carcinogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "Carcinoma" is named by originating from which type of tissue?

    <p>&quot;Epithelial tissue&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are thought to cause relapse and recurrence in cancer treatment?

    <p>Cancer stem cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process that involves the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type?

    <p>Metaplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that sets carcinoma in situ (CIS) apart from invasive and metastatic cancers?

    <p>Has not penetrated the local basement membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which syndrome is characterized by elevated stature, moderate degree of mental impairment, and an elevated number of repeated DNA sequences?

    <p>Fragile X syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the risk for each child if both parents affected by an autosomal dominant disease are heterozygotes?

    <p>75%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disease is characterized by delayed age of onset, incomplete penetrance, and variable expressivity, and is considered the most common recessive disease?

    <p>Cystic fibrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does penetrance refer to in genetics?

    <p>The percentage of individuals with a specific genotype who also exhibit the expected phenotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes variation in severity of Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?

    <p>Modifier genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of carrier detection tests through genetic testing?

    <p>To identify the disease locus for mutation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of modifier genes in genetics?

    <p>They can modify the expression of disease-causing genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gene mutation leads to tumor formation in Type I neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen disease)?

    <p>a deletion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes variation in severity in diseases with variable expressivity?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?

    <p>increased calcium in ICF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of telomeres in cancer?

    <p>Restore and maintain cell division capabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is associated with the spread of cancer cells to distant tissues and organs?

    <p>Metastasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basic function of tumor suppressor genes?

    <p>Block antigrowth signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein, when mutated, can turn from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene, stimulating cell growth even when growth factors are missing?

    <p>RAS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of clonal proliferation in cancer development?

    <p>Increased growth rate and decreased apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism causes high rate of chromosomal loss, heterozygosity, and chromosomal amplification in cancer?

    <p>Tumor suppressor gene overexpression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor stimulates new blood vessel growth to promote cancer cell and tumor growth?

    <p>Angiogenic factors secreted by advanced cancers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of caretaker genes?

    <p>&quot;Encode proteins involved in repairing damaged DNA&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cytokine release from inflammatory cells in cancer development?

    <p>Stimulate cell proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?

    <p>Stimulates cell growth even when growth factors are missing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?

    <p>Herpes virus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer according to the text?

    <p>Asbestos exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cancer is associated with HPV type 16 and 18?

    <p>Cervical and anal cancers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of basal cell carcinoma according to the text?

    <p>UV radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of radiation is associated with acute leukemias, thyroid, breast, lung, stomach, colon, and esophageal cancers?

    <p>Ionizing radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which genetic mechanism involves the activation of proto-oncogenes resulting in hyperactivity of growth-related gene products called oncogenes?

    <p>Oncogene activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of paraneoplastic syndromes according to the text?

    <p>Caused by biologic substances released from the tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance is linked to indoor air pollution and associated with lung cancer?

    <p>Radon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures?

    <p>Scleroderma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of RAS in cancer development?

    <p>Stimulating cell growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common form of cellular injury?

    <p>Ischemic injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of lead on calcium homeostasis?

    <p>Promotion of calcium deposition in tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of aneuploidy?

    <p>Involves the depletion or duplication of genetic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During transcription, what is the role of RNA polymerase?

    <p>Pulls DNA strands apart to allow exposure of DNA bases for mRNA synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of a frameshift mutation?

    <p>Premature stop codon and altered amino acid sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which syndrome is characterized by short stature, webbing of the neck, and widely spaced nipples?

    <p>Turner Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of Robertsonian translocation?

    <p>Serious deletions or duplications in offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes aneuploidy?

    <p>It involves the loss or gain of genetic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of transcription factors during gene expression?

    <p>Activate or repress expression of genes by binding to DNA sequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mutation can have profound consequences and lead to serious genetic diseases?

    <p>Missense mutation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Osmosis and Membrane Transport

    • Osmotic pressure drives the movement of water through semipermeable membranes.
    • Active transport requires energy in the form of ATP.
    • Na+ K+ ATPase, or Sodium Potassium Pump, maintains cellular ion balance by pumping sodium out and potassium into the cell.
    • H+ ATPase concentrates hydrogen ions where they are needed for various physiological processes.
    • Co-transport in secondary active transport is driven by the electrochemical gradient established by primary active transport.

    Ion Channels and Membrane Potential

    • If a membrane is permeable to a specific ion and the Nernst potential balances the diffusion potential, there will be no net movement of that ion across the membrane.
    • The resting membrane potential (RMP) of a non-signaling neuron typically ranges from -70 to -90 mV.
    • Osmotic pressure drives the movement of solvent, primarily water, in biological systems.
    • Passive transport, including facilitated diffusion, does not move substances against the electrochemical gradient.

    Cell Death Mechanisms

    • Apoptosis involves the removal of cellular debris through the formation of apoptotic bodies.
    • Apoptosis does not lead to inflammatory changes, in contrast to necrosis, which is characterized by cell rupture and inflammation.
    • Necrosis is marked by cell swelling, membrane rupture, and subsequent inflammation.

    Autophagy and Cellular Changes

    • Dysregulated autophagy can contribute to cancer, autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic injury.
    • Autophagy primarily aids in the degradation of cellular components to maintain cellular homeostasis.
    • Progressive stiffness and rigidity in tissues/systemic structures characterize conditions like fibrosis.

    Postmortem Changes and Cellular Injury

    • Postmortem autolysis involves the breakdown of cells post-death due to enzymatic activity.
    • Loss of cell membrane integrity during injury is often due to oxidative stress and damage.
    • Making the membrane potential less negative is called depolarization.

    Action Potential and Neuromuscular Junction

    • Sodium ions flow into the cell during the upstroke of the action potential, causing depolarization.
    • At the neuromuscular junction, the motor end plate serves as the synapse for communication between motor neurons and muscle fibers.
    • Acetylcholine (ACh) facilitates skeletal muscle excitation by binding to receptors on the muscle cell membrane.
    • Dantrolene, a drug, blocks nicotinic ACh receptors, preventing ACh action.
    • Myelin enhances nerve conduction speed by insulating the axon.

    Ion Movement and Channel Characteristics

    • The phase following repolarization where the membrane potential is more negative than resting potential is the hyperpolarization phase.
    • Myelin sheath surrounds the nerve axon to ensure efficient signal transmission.
    • 'Saltatory conduction' occurs at the nodes of Ranvier along myelinated nerve fibers.
    • Certain drugs can activate nicotinic ACh receptors, prolonging ACh effects by resisting breakdown by acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

    Muscle Physiology and Dysregulation

    • The functional contracting unit of muscle fibers is the sarcomere.
    • Tropomyosin blocks the myosin head from binding to actin.
    • Interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle is regulated by calcium ions.
    • Atrophy can occur due to disuse, denervation, or decreased blood supply.

    Cellular Changes and Injuries

    • Abnormal hyperplasia may indicate pathological conditions.
    • Metaplasia refers to the reversible change where one mature cell type is replaced by another.
    • Excessive ATP consumption during ischemia may lead to cell injury.

    Cancer and Genetics

    • Cancer cell morphogenesis may include various genetic alterations and tumor suppressor gene dysfunction.
    • With both parents being heterozygotes of an autosomal dominant disease, the risk for affected offspring is 75%.
    • Delayed onset and variable expressivity characterize certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis.
    • Telomeres protect chromosome ends and are linked to cellular aging and cancer.
    • Clonal proliferation refers to the expansion of genetically identical cells contributing to tumor growth.

    Tumor Characteristics

    • Benign tumors are usually encapsulated with well-differentiated cells, while malignant tumors invade adjacent tissues and lack a defined capsule.
    • Carcinoma originates from epithelial tissues; carcinoma in situ remains localized without invasion.
    • Modifier genes can influence the expression and severity of genetic traits and diseases.

    Radiation and Environmental Impacts

    • Radiation that removes electrons can cause DNA damage and cancer development.
    • Lead poisoning can cause neurological and vascular dysfunction.
    • HPV types 16 and 18 are associated with cervical cancers, while chronic exposure to certain carcinogens leads to lung cancers.

    Notable Associations and Effects

    • Cytokine release from inflammatory cells may promote tumor growth and progression.
    • RAS oncogenes play a critical role in cell proliferation and cancer development.
    • Acute exposure to high doses of radiation can lead to various cancers, including leukemia and solid tumors.

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