185 Questions
Which type of feedback promotes stability and cancels out the original response in order to restore homeostasis?
Negative feedback
What does negative feedback do to the original stimulus or response?
Cancels it out
Which component of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can be integral or peripheral?
Proteins
In which direction does positive feedback promote change?
One direction
What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?
ATP
Which process involves the breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
Metabolism
What does facilitated diffusion require that simple diffusion does not?
Carrier proteins
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
Diffusion
Which type of feedback promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability?
Positive feedback
What does ATP stand for in the context of cellular processes?
Adenosine Triphosphate
Which component of the cell membrane decreases membrane fluidity and permeability?
Cholesterol
What is the basic unit of ATP production in an aerobic process?
Acetyl-coA
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
Difference in solute concentration across the membrane
Which type of transport does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
Facilitated diffusion
What is the primary energy source for primary active transport?
ATP
Which molecule maintains low intracellular Ca2+ concentration?
Ca2+ ATPase
In which cells is H+ ATPase found?
Gastric glands and renal tubules
What is the driving force for substance transport in co-transport?
Na+ moving down its concentration gradient
Which type of potential is generated when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient?
Diffusion potential
What does the Nernst potential represent?
The balance between chemical and electrical driving forces on an ion
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
-70mV to -85mV
What is responsible for maintaining the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?
Na+ K+ ATPase
What is the basis for nerve function, established by the Na+ K+ ATPase pump?
Resting membrane potential
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
Intracellular calcium increases
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
Lead
What is the main manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Peripheral nervous system effects
Which factor of radiation affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
Bystander effects
Which nutritional deficiencies are major effects of radiation?
Magnesium, vitamin B6, thiamine, phosphorus
What does ethanol metabolize to in the liver?
Acetaldehyde
What is the main impact of mercury on cells?
Direct interaction with reactive products
What is the main effect of carbon monoxide on the body?
Produces hypoxic injury
Which age group shows poorer outcomes from severe carbon monoxide poisoning?
Adults above 35 years old
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
Sodium/K pump and calcium channels
What are the genetic changes caused by radiation exposure?
Gene mutations, mini-satellite mutations, micronucleus formation
What is the most typical feature of necrosis?
Inflammatory changes
What is the key difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
Presence of inflammatory changes
What can dysregulated apoptosis lead to?
Autoimmune disorders
Which process is described as a 'recycling center' and 'self-destructive'?
Autophagy
What is a characteristic of cellular aging and frailty?
Decrease in mobility and balance
What are the postmortem changes associated with somatic death?
Skin discoloration
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury?
Hypoxia
What biochemical theme of pathophysiology causes destruction of cell membranes through oxygen-derived free radicals?
Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
Which response is triggered by decreased ATP levels due to hypoxia?
Cellular swelling
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
Reversible cellular swelling (oncosis)
What type of calcification is associated with excessive calcium deposition in damaged tissues?
Dystrophic calcification
Which common toxin is known for causing cellular alterations through exposure?
Lead
What is the function of troponin in muscle contraction?
Binds to calcium and moves tropomyosin out of the way to allow myosin to attach to actin
What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
Binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin out of the way to allow myosin to attach to actin
Which protein blocks myosin head from attaching to actin in muscle contraction?
Tropomyosin
What is the main function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
Pumps calcium from the ICF of muscle into the interior of the SR for storage
What is the role of calmodulin in smooth muscle contraction?
Regulates myosin-light-chain-kinase which controls cross-bridge cycling
What distinguishes smooth muscle from skeletal muscle in terms of excitation-contraction coupling?
Smooth muscle lacks troponin and uses calmodulin-calcium complex for controlling actin-myosin interaction
Which process is most likely responsible for hypertrophy in cardiac cells?
Chronic hemodynamic overload due to conditions like hypertension or heart valve dysfunction
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
Caused by excessive hormonal stimulation or effects of growth factors on target cells
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
Abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells without increased rate of cellular division
What is the primary cause of reperfusion injury in tissues?
Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production
What is the primary characteristic of action potentials?
All or none events
What happens during the overshoot phase of the action potential?
Cell interior becomes positive
What is the role of myelin in nerve fibers?
Results in slower transmission of action potentials
What is the purpose of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated fibers?
Allow AP’s to occur and jump from node to node
What is the structure on the muscle fiber where a chemical synapse occurs with a motor neuron?
Motor end plate
What is the first step in the neuromuscular junction physiology?
Action potential travels down the motor neuron to the presynaptic terminal
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
AChEsterase degrades ACh into choline and acetate
What characterizes myasthenia gravis?
Weak end plate potentials
What is the role of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction?
Binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin
What is the primary effect of curariform drugs on the neuromuscular junction?
Inhibits nicotinic ACh receptors
What is the impact of anti-AChE drugs such as neostigmine on neuromuscular junction physiology?
Increases amount of ACh in NMJ
What characterizes positive feedback in relation to a physiological response?
Promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
Decreases membrane fluidity and permeability
Which substance is involved in the Breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
Acetyl-coA
In which type of transport does substance movement occur down a concentration gradient, without the requirement of energy or a carrier?
Diffusion
What is the characteristic of negatively charged carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
Repels other negative charges
What happens when the membrane is non-permeable to a molecule involved in diffusion?
The molecule will not diffuse across the membrane
What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?
Serves as a chemical fuel for cellular processes
What does the breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into acetyl-coA require?
Oxygen
What is the primary characteristic of negatively stated carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
Repels other negative charges
Which molecule undergoes processing into acetyl-coA during cellular energy production?
Fatty acids
What type of transport involves substance movement down a concentration gradient without requiring energy or a carrier?
Diffusion
What does ATP serve as in cellular processes?
Serves as a chemical fuel for cellular processes
What protein 'nails on' tropomyosin in muscle contraction?
Troponin
What is the primary function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
Regulates calcium levels
What causes atrophy in skeletal muscle and other organs?
Decreased workload
What controls the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle contraction?
Calmodulin
What is the most likely cause of cellular hypertrophy in response to increased demand?
Hormonal stimulation
What is the primary characteristic of metaplasia in cells?
Reversible replacement of one cell type by another
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS)
Which process involves the recycling center of the cell, leading to self-destruction for survival purposes?
Autophagy
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
Cellular swelling
What is the primary cause of frailty in aging individuals, particularly in women?
Mobility impairment
What is the primary effect of ischemia, a common cause of hypoxia, on cellular responses?
Decrease in ATP
What is the key factor that leads to putrefactive changes associated with the release of enzymes and lytic dissolution postmortem?
Release of enzymes from lysosomes
Which biochemical theme in pathophysiology leads to the activation of enzymes and subsequent intracellular damage?
Intracellular calcium increases
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes apoptosis from necrosis?
Inflammatory changes
What is the main manifestation of cellular injury caused by infiltrations/accumulations?
Excessive vacuolation of the cytoplasm
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury and determining structural patterns of disease?
Hypoxia
What is the role of oxygen-derived free radicals in contributing to cell injury?
Destruction of cell membranes
What characterizes somatic death and distinguishes it from other forms of cell death?
Complete cessation of respirations and circulation
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
Facilitated diffusion
Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Neuropathy
What is the primary impact of carbon monoxide on the body?
Reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
Lead
What is a significant nutritional deficiency caused by ethanol?
Magnesium
In radiation exposure, which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
Bystander effects
Which characteristic is associated with mercury's impact on neuro disorders?
Increases accumulation in the brain
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
Decreases cellular energy
How does carbon monoxide impact tissue hypoxia?
Promotes tissue hypoxia by binding to hemoglobin
What is a common manifestation of radiation exposure related to cell proliferation?
Early injury manifested after exposure
How does ethanol alter folate homeostasis?
Increases the loss of folate through urine and feces
What is a key factor affecting the impact of radiation exposure on tissue oxygenation?
Oxygen effects and hypoxia
What is the primary manifestation of mercury's high affinity to proteins?
Tissue damage in CNS and kidney
Which type of transport requires no energy and does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
Osmosis
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
Osmotic pressure
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase 'Sodium Potassium Pump'?
Maintains Na+ and K+ balance
What does the equilibrium potential represent?
The diffusion potential that exactly balances the tendency for diffusion down the concentration difference
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
-70 to -85 millivolts
What is the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient called?
Diffusion potentials
Where is H+ ATPase found in the body?
Gastric glands and renal tubules
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
Increase in number of cells due to excessive proliferation
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
Formation of oxygen-derived free radicals
Which type of transport requires molecules to be transported against their concentration gradient at the expense of energy?
Active transport
What is the potential difference that depends on the size of the concentration gradient called?
Diffusion potentials
What is the primary function of myelin in nerve fibers?
To decrease ion flow through the membrane
What is the main impact of inhibitors like curariform drugs on neuromuscular junction physiology?
Blocks nicotinic ACh receptors and reduces the amplitude of end plate potential
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
Intracellular calcium levels increase
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
ACh unbinding from receptors and closure of Na+/K+ pumps
What is the role of acetylcholine in skeletal muscle excitation?
Binds to motor end plate receptors and produces end plate potential
What are the basic characteristics of action potentials?
All or none events with constant amplitude and conduction velocity
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
Increases amount of ACh in neuromuscular junction to counteract receptor destruction
What is the primary purpose of the Nernst potential?
To represent the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient
Which characteristic is associated with fragile X syndrome?
Elevated stature and moderate degree of mental impairment
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
To provide structural support and help maintain fluidity
Which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field in radiation exposure?
Environmental factors
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
To disrupt cellular energy production
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
Dysplasia involves abnormal development, while hyperplasia involves an increase in the number of cells
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?
To maintain the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid
What is the primary purpose of modifier genes?
To modify the expression of disease-causing genes at other loci
What does penetrance measure?
The percentage of individuals with a specific genotype who also exhibit the expected phenotype
What distinguishes autosomal recessive diseases from autosomal dominant diseases?
Recessive diseases must be homozygous to express disease, while dominant diseases do not require homozygosity
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
To increase neurotransmitter function and alleviate symptoms of muscle weakness
What role does telomerase play in cancer cells?
Activates telomerase to restore and maintain telomeres, allowing continuous cell division
What is the primary impact of obesity on cancer risk?
Increases insulin resistance-producing hyperinsulinemia
What is the process involved in the spread of cancer cells from the site of the original tumor to distant tissues and organs?
Metastasis
What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes in normal cells?
Inhibit growth factor stimulation and block stages of the cell cycle
What is the main role of free radicals in inflammation and cancer development?
Stimulate cell proliferation through cytokine release from inflammatory cells
What is the primary characteristic of metastatic cells that allows them to withstand physiologic stresses during travel in the blood and lymphatic circulation?
Increased migratory capacity and resistance to apoptosis
What is the primary impact of decreased physical activity on cancer risk?
Promotes unnecessary growth by activating growth-promotion pathways
What is the primary role of angiogenesis in cancer cell and tumor growth?
Promotes new blood vessel growth to support cancer cell and tumor growth
What is the main role of caretaker genes in normal cells?
Encode proteins that negatively regulate proliferation; turn unnecessary growth off.
What is the main cause of chromosome instability in cancer cells?
Malfunctions in cellular machinery regulating chromosomal segregation at mitosis.
What is the main consequence of multiple mutations in cancer development?
Selective advantage over neighboring cells.
What is a primary characteristic of benign tumors?
Retain recognizable normal tissue structure and do not invade beyond their capsule
Which characteristic is associated with malignant tumors?
Characterized by rapid growth rate and specific microscopic alterations including loss of differentiation
What does anaplasia in malignant tumors refer to?
Irregularities of size and shape of the nucleus, loss of normal tissue structure
What is the meaning of carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
Preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin
What are the three fates associated with preinvasive epithelial tumors?
Remain stable for a long time, progress to invasive cancer, regress and disappear
What is the primary process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell?
Carcinogenesis = transformation: the process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell
What is one characteristic of cancer stem cells?
Self-renewal ability with cell divisions creating new stem cells
What are the three genetic mechanisms that have a role in carcinogenesis?
Activation of proto-oncogenes, mutation of genes, inhibition of tumor suppressor genes
What is the main function of Carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
Refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma
What is a common characteristic of malignant tumors?
Rapid growth rate and specific microscopic alterations including loss of differentiation
What is one characteristic associated with anaplasia in malignant tumors?
Irregularities of size and shape of nucleus, loss of normal tissue structure
What is one characteristic associated with benign tumors?
Retain recognizable normal tissue structure and do not invade beyond their capsule
What does Carcinoma in situ (CIS) refer to?
Preinvasive epithelial tumors that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma
Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?
Herpes virus
Which ionizing radiation is associated with acute leukemias?
Alpha radiation
Which cancer is NOT associated with HPV infection?
Lung cancer
What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer?
Asbestos exposure
What is the most common type of skin cancer associated with UV radiation?
Melanoma
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
Sodium-potassium pump
What is the primary cause of putrefactive changes postmortem?
Release of lytic enzymes
What does trisomy 21 refer to?
[Down syndrome]
What is a common source of environmental exposure linked to childhood cancers?
Pesticides
What is the primary cause of paraneoplastic syndromes?
Biologic substances released from the tumor
During transcription, what is the role of transcription factors?
Bind to DNA to regulate the timing of transcriptions
What is the critical function of gene splicing in transcription?
Ensuring introns are removed precisely for proper protein production
What facilitates the interaction between mRNA and tRNA during translation?
Anticodons
What is the result of frameshift mutation?
Change in entire reading frame
Which condition results from aneuploidy that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes?
Monosomy
What is the typical outcome of autosomal aneuploidy?
Lethal monosomy
What is the characteristic feature of Turner Syndrome?
Sterile with gonadal streaks rather than ovaries
What genetic event leads to Klinefelter Syndrome?
Nondisjunction of X chromosomes in the mother during formation of gametes
What is the primary cause of Down Syndrome?
Nondisjunction during formation of mother's egg cell
What is the outcome of a zygote having three copies of each chromosome instead of two?
Triploidy
What is the common outcome for individuals with Down Syndrome?
IQ within normal range and typical physical features
What characterizes sex chromosome aneuploidies compared to autosomal aneuploidies?
Increased severity and more serious consequences
university of Cincinnati nurs8022 Exam 1 practice test
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