NURS 8022 Exam 1 Practice Test (used exam study guide)
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Questions and Answers

Which type of feedback promotes stability and cancels out the original response in order to restore homeostasis?

  • Positive feedback
  • Altered feedback
  • Negative feedback (correct)
  • Reactive feedback

    • What does negative feedback do to the original stimulus or response?

  • Cancels it out (correct)
  • Reverses it
  • Amplifies it
  • Stabilizes it

    • Which component of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can be integral or peripheral?

  • Cholesterol
  • Proteins (correct)
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids

    • In which direction does positive feedback promote change?

    <p>One direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?

    <p>Metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does facilitated diffusion require that simple diffusion does not?

    <p>Carrier proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?

    <p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of feedback promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability?

    <p>Positive feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ATP stand for in the context of cellular processes?

    <p>Adenosine Triphosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the cell membrane decreases membrane fluidity and permeability?

    <p>Cholesterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basic unit of ATP production in an aerobic process?

    <p>Acetyl-coA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?

    <p>Difference in solute concentration across the membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport does not move against the electrochemical gradient?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary energy source for primary active transport?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule maintains low intracellular Ca2+ concentration?

    <p>Ca2+ ATPase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which cells is H+ ATPase found?

    <p>Gastric glands and renal tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the driving force for substance transport in co-transport?

    <p>Na+ moving down its concentration gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of potential is generated when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient?

    <p>Diffusion potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Nernst potential represent?

    <p>The balance between chemical and electrical driving forces on an ion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?

    <p>-70mV to -85mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is responsible for maintaining the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?

    <p>Na+ K+ ATPase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basis for nerve function, established by the Na+ K+ ATPase pump?

    <p>Resting membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?

    <p>Intracellular calcium increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?

    <p>Peripheral nervous system effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor of radiation affects cells not in the direct radiated field?

    <p>Bystander effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutritional deficiencies are major effects of radiation?

    <p>Magnesium, vitamin B6, thiamine, phosphorus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ethanol metabolize to in the liver?

    <p>Acetaldehyde</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main impact of mercury on cells?

    <p>Direct interaction with reactive products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of carbon monoxide on the body?

    <p>Produces hypoxic injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which age group shows poorer outcomes from severe carbon monoxide poisoning?

    <p>Adults above 35 years old</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?

    <p>Sodium/K pump and calcium channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the genetic changes caused by radiation exposure?

    <p>Gene mutations, mini-satellite mutations, micronucleus formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most typical feature of necrosis?

    <p>Inflammatory changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between apoptosis and necrosis?

    <p>Presence of inflammatory changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can dysregulated apoptosis lead to?

    <p>Autoimmune disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is described as a 'recycling center' and 'self-destructive'?

    <p>Autophagy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of cellular aging and frailty?

    <p>Decrease in mobility and balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the postmortem changes associated with somatic death?

    <p>Skin discoloration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury?

    <p>Hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What biochemical theme of pathophysiology causes destruction of cell membranes through oxygen-derived free radicals?

    <p>Oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which response is triggered by decreased ATP levels due to hypoxia?

    <p>Cellular swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?

    <p>Reversible cellular swelling (oncosis)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of calcification is associated with excessive calcium deposition in damaged tissues?

    <p>Dystrophic calcification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which common toxin is known for causing cellular alterations through exposure?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of troponin in muscle contraction?

    <p>Binds to calcium and moves tropomyosin out of the way to allow myosin to attach to actin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?

    <p>Binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin out of the way to allow myosin to attach to actin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein blocks myosin head from attaching to actin in muscle contraction?

    <p>Tropomyosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?

    <p>Pumps calcium from the ICF of muscle into the interior of the SR for storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of calmodulin in smooth muscle contraction?

    <p>Regulates myosin-light-chain-kinase which controls cross-bridge cycling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes smooth muscle from skeletal muscle in terms of excitation-contraction coupling?

    <p>Smooth muscle lacks troponin and uses calmodulin-calcium complex for controlling actin-myosin interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is most likely responsible for hypertrophy in cardiac cells?

    <p>Chronic hemodynamic overload due to conditions like hypertension or heart valve dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?

    <p>Caused by excessive hormonal stimulation or effects of growth factors on target cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?

    <p>Abnormal changes in size, shape, and organization of mature cells without increased rate of cellular division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of reperfusion injury in tissues?

    <p>Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of action potentials?

    <p>All or none events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the overshoot phase of the action potential?

    <p>Cell interior becomes positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of myelin in nerve fibers?

    <p>Results in slower transmission of action potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated fibers?

    <p>Allow AP’s to occur and jump from node to node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure on the muscle fiber where a chemical synapse occurs with a motor neuron?

    <p>Motor end plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the neuromuscular junction physiology?

    <p>Action potential travels down the motor neuron to the presynaptic terminal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?

    <p>AChEsterase degrades ACh into choline and acetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes myasthenia gravis?

    <p>Weak end plate potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction?

    <p>Binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of curariform drugs on the neuromuscular junction?

    <p>Inhibits nicotinic ACh receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of anti-AChE drugs such as neostigmine on neuromuscular junction physiology?

    <p>Increases amount of ACh in NMJ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes positive feedback in relation to a physiological response?

    <p>Promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?

    <p>Decreases membrane fluidity and permeability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance is involved in the Breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?

    <p>Acetyl-coA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of transport does substance movement occur down a concentration gradient, without the requirement of energy or a carrier?

    <p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of negatively charged carbohydrates in the cell membrane?

    <p>Repels other negative charges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the membrane is non-permeable to a molecule involved in diffusion?

    <p>The molecule will not diffuse across the membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?

    <p>Serves as a chemical fuel for cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into acetyl-coA require?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of negatively stated carbohydrates in the cell membrane?

    <p>Repels other negative charges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule undergoes processing into acetyl-coA during cellular energy production?

    <p>Fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of transport involves substance movement down a concentration gradient without requiring energy or a carrier?

    <p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ATP serve as in cellular processes?

    <p>Serves as a chemical fuel for cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What protein 'nails on' tropomyosin in muscle contraction?

    <p>Troponin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?

    <p>Regulates calcium levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes atrophy in skeletal muscle and other organs?

    <p>Decreased workload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What controls the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle contraction?

    <p>Calmodulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely cause of cellular hypertrophy in response to increased demand?

    <p>Hormonal stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of metaplasia in cells?

    <p>Reversible replacement of one cell type by another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?

    <p>Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the recycling center of the cell, leading to self-destruction for survival purposes?

    <p>Autophagy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?

    <p>Cellular swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of frailty in aging individuals, particularly in women?

    <p>Mobility impairment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of ischemia, a common cause of hypoxia, on cellular responses?

    <p>Decrease in ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key factor that leads to putrefactive changes associated with the release of enzymes and lytic dissolution postmortem?

    <p>Release of enzymes from lysosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which biochemical theme in pathophysiology leads to the activation of enzymes and subsequent intracellular damage?

    <p>Intracellular calcium increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes apoptosis from necrosis?

    <p>Inflammatory changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main manifestation of cellular injury caused by infiltrations/accumulations?

    <p>Excessive vacuolation of the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury and determining structural patterns of disease?

    <p>Hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of oxygen-derived free radicals in contributing to cell injury?

    <p>Destruction of cell membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes somatic death and distinguishes it from other forms of cell death?

    <p>Complete cessation of respirations and circulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?

    <p>Facilitated diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?

    <p>Neuropathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary impact of carbon monoxide on the body?

    <p>Reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant nutritional deficiency caused by ethanol?

    <p>Magnesium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In radiation exposure, which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field?

    <p>Bystander effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is associated with mercury's impact on neuro disorders?

    <p>Increases accumulation in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?

    <p>Decreases cellular energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does carbon monoxide impact tissue hypoxia?

    <p>Promotes tissue hypoxia by binding to hemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common manifestation of radiation exposure related to cell proliferation?

    <p>Early injury manifested after exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does ethanol alter folate homeostasis?

    <p>Increases the loss of folate through urine and feces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor affecting the impact of radiation exposure on tissue oxygenation?

    <p>Oxygen effects and hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary manifestation of mercury's high affinity to proteins?

    <p>Tissue damage in CNS and kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport requires no energy and does not move against the electrochemical gradient?

    <p>Osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?

    <p>Osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase 'Sodium Potassium Pump'?

    <p>Maintains Na+ and K+ balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the equilibrium potential represent?

    <p>The diffusion potential that exactly balances the tendency for diffusion down the concentration difference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?

    <p>-70 to -85 millivolts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient called?

    <p>Diffusion potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is H+ ATPase found in the body?

    <p>Gastric glands and renal tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?

    <p>Increase in number of cells due to excessive proliferation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?

    <p>Formation of oxygen-derived free radicals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of transport requires molecules to be transported against their concentration gradient at the expense of energy?

    <p>Active transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential difference that depends on the size of the concentration gradient called?

    <p>Diffusion potentials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of myelin in nerve fibers?

    <p>To decrease ion flow through the membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main impact of inhibitors like curariform drugs on neuromuscular junction physiology?

    <p>Blocks nicotinic ACh receptors and reduces the amplitude of end plate potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?

    <p>Intracellular calcium levels increase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?

    <p>ACh unbinding from receptors and closure of Na+/K+ pumps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of acetylcholine in skeletal muscle excitation?

    <p>Binds to motor end plate receptors and produces end plate potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the basic characteristics of action potentials?

    <p>All or none events with constant amplitude and conduction velocity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?

    <p>Increases amount of ACh in neuromuscular junction to counteract receptor destruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Nernst potential?

    <p>To represent the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is associated with fragile X syndrome?

    <p>Elevated stature and moderate degree of mental impairment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?

    <p>To provide structural support and help maintain fluidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field in radiation exposure?

    <p>Environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?

    <p>To disrupt cellular energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?

    <p>Dysplasia involves abnormal development, while hyperplasia involves an increase in the number of cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?

    <p>To maintain the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of modifier genes?

    <p>To modify the expression of disease-causing genes at other loci</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does penetrance measure?

    <p>The percentage of individuals with a specific genotype who also exhibit the expected phenotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes autosomal recessive diseases from autosomal dominant diseases?

    <p>Recessive diseases must be homozygous to express disease, while dominant diseases do not require homozygosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?

    <p>To increase neurotransmitter function and alleviate symptoms of muscle weakness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does telomerase play in cancer cells?

    <p>Activates telomerase to restore and maintain telomeres, allowing continuous cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary impact of obesity on cancer risk?

    <p>Increases insulin resistance-producing hyperinsulinemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process involved in the spread of cancer cells from the site of the original tumor to distant tissues and organs?

    <p>Metastasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes in normal cells?

    <p>Inhibit growth factor stimulation and block stages of the cell cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of free radicals in inflammation and cancer development?

    <p>Stimulate cell proliferation through cytokine release from inflammatory cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of metastatic cells that allows them to withstand physiologic stresses during travel in the blood and lymphatic circulation?

    <p>Increased migratory capacity and resistance to apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary impact of decreased physical activity on cancer risk?

    <p>Promotes unnecessary growth by activating growth-promotion pathways</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of angiogenesis in cancer cell and tumor growth?

    <p>Promotes new blood vessel growth to support cancer cell and tumor growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of caretaker genes in normal cells?

    <p>Encode proteins that negatively regulate proliferation; turn unnecessary growth off.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main cause of chromosome instability in cancer cells?

    <p>Malfunctions in cellular machinery regulating chromosomal segregation at mitosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of multiple mutations in cancer development?

    <p>Selective advantage over neighboring cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of benign tumors?

    <p>Retain recognizable normal tissue structure and do not invade beyond their capsule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is associated with malignant tumors?

    <p>Characterized by rapid growth rate and specific microscopic alterations including loss of differentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does anaplasia in malignant tumors refer to?

    <p>Irregularities of size and shape of the nucleus, loss of normal tissue structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the meaning of carcinoma in situ (CIS)?

    <p>Preinvasive epithelial tumors of glandular or squamous cell origin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three fates associated with preinvasive epithelial tumors?

    <p>Remain stable for a long time, progress to invasive cancer, regress and disappear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell?

    <p>Carcinogenesis = transformation: the process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one characteristic of cancer stem cells?

    <p>Self-renewal ability with cell divisions creating new stem cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three genetic mechanisms that have a role in carcinogenesis?

    <p>Activation of proto-oncogenes, mutation of genes, inhibition of tumor suppressor genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Carcinoma in situ (CIS)?

    <p>Refers to preinvasive epithelial tumors that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of malignant tumors?

    <p>Rapid growth rate and specific microscopic alterations including loss of differentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one characteristic associated with anaplasia in malignant tumors?

    <p>Irregularities of size and shape of nucleus, loss of normal tissue structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one characteristic associated with benign tumors?

    <p>Retain recognizable normal tissue structure and do not invade beyond their capsule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Carcinoma in situ (CIS) refer to?

    <p>Preinvasive epithelial tumors that have not penetrated the local basement membrane or invaded the surrounding stroma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?

    <p>Herpes virus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ionizing radiation is associated with acute leukemias?

    <p>Alpha radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cancer is NOT associated with HPV infection?

    <p>Lung cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer?

    <p>Asbestos exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common type of skin cancer associated with UV radiation?

    <p>Melanoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?

    <p>Sodium-potassium pump</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of putrefactive changes postmortem?

    <p>Release of lytic enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does trisomy 21 refer to?

    <p>[Down syndrome]</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common source of environmental exposure linked to childhood cancers?

    <p>Pesticides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of paraneoplastic syndromes?

    <p>Biologic substances released from the tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During transcription, what is the role of transcription factors?

    <p>Bind to DNA to regulate the timing of transcriptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the critical function of gene splicing in transcription?

    <p>Ensuring introns are removed precisely for proper protein production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What facilitates the interaction between mRNA and tRNA during translation?

    <p>Anticodons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of frameshift mutation?

    <p>Change in entire reading frame</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition results from aneuploidy that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes?

    <p>Monosomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical outcome of autosomal aneuploidy?

    <p>Lethal monosomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of Turner Syndrome?

    <p>Sterile with gonadal streaks rather than ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What genetic event leads to Klinefelter Syndrome?

    <p>Nondisjunction of X chromosomes in the mother during formation of gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of Down Syndrome?

    <p>Nondisjunction during formation of mother's egg cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of a zygote having three copies of each chromosome instead of two?

    <p>Triploidy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common outcome for individuals with Down Syndrome?

    <p>IQ within normal range and typical physical features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes sex chromosome aneuploidies compared to autosomal aneuploidies?

    <p>Increased severity and more serious consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Feedback Mechanisms

    • Negative feedback promotes stability by reversing the original response to restore homeostasis.
    • Positive feedback amplifies changes in one direction, potentially leading to instability.

    Cellular Components

    • The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can include integral or peripheral proteins.
    • Cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity and permeability.
    • Integral proteins regulate transport and are essential for various cellular functions.

    Cellular Energy and Processes

    • ATP (adenosine triphosphate) serves as the primary energy source for cellular processes.
    • Glycolysis involves the breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids.

    Transport Mechanisms

    • Facilitated diffusion requires carrier proteins, unlike simple diffusion which does not.
    • Diffusion is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient.
    • Primary active transport uses ATP as the energy source and does not move against the electrochemical gradient.

    Ion Transport and Homeostasis

    • The Na+/K+ ATPase pump maintains sodium and potassium concentration differences between extracellular and intracellular fluids.
    • Intracellular calcium levels rise when cardiac glycosides inhibit the Na+/K+ ATPase pump, impacting cardiac function.

    Toxicity and Cellular Effects

    • Lead poisoning leads to disruption of ion transport mechanisms, causing various neurological and hematological effects.
    • Ethanol metabolizes to acetaldehyde in the liver, impacting cellular processes.
    • Mercury adversely affects cellular function and can cause significant toxicity.

    Physiological Responses

    • Apoptosis is a controlled mechanism of cell death, while necrosis results from acute injury and inflammation.
    • Dysregulated apoptosis can contribute to diseases like cancer.
    • The action potential is characterized by rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane.

    Muscle Contraction Mechanism

    • Calcium ions play a critical role in muscle contraction by interacting with troponin, which then displaces tropomyosin from actin sites.
    • The sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for calcium storage and releases calcium during muscle contraction.
    • Calmodulin regulates smooth muscle contraction, distinguishing it from skeletal muscle.

    Cellular Injury and Death

    • Reperfusion injury results from the restoration of blood flow leading to oxidative stress and inflammation.
    • Atrophy may result from disuse of skeletal muscle or other organs due to lack of stimulation.
    • Somatic death is characterized by the cessation of all physiological functions, including heart and brain activity.

    Aging and Degeneration

    • Cellular aging and frailty are marked by decreased functionality and regenerative capacity.
    • Common degenerative changes involve the atrophy of tissues and are often linked to increased accumulation of cellular debris.

    Post-Mortem Changes

    • Putrefactive changes occur postmortem due to enzyme release and lytic dissolution in cells.
    • Changes in tissue composition can occur due to ischemia and subsequent hypoxia, affecting cell viability.

    Conclusion

    • Understanding cellular mechanisms, feedback loops, and responses to injury is crucial in diagnosing and treating a wide range of conditions.
    • Knowledge of the distinctions between apoptosis and necrosis can guide therapeutic interventions in various diseases.

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