Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which type of feedback promotes stability and cancels out the original response in order to restore homeostasis?
Which type of feedback promotes stability and cancels out the original response in order to restore homeostasis?
- Positive feedback
- Altered feedback
- Negative feedback (correct)
- Reactive feedback
What does negative feedback do to the original stimulus or response?
What does negative feedback do to the original stimulus or response?
- Cancels it out (correct)
- Reverses it
- Amplifies it
- Stabilizes it
Which component of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can be integral or peripheral?
Which component of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can be integral or peripheral?
- Cholesterol
- Proteins (correct)
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
In which direction does positive feedback promote change?
In which direction does positive feedback promote change?
What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?
What is the chemical fuel for cellular processes?
Which process involves the breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
Which process involves the breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
What does facilitated diffusion require that simple diffusion does not?
What does facilitated diffusion require that simple diffusion does not?
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
Which type of feedback promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability?
Which type of feedback promotes a change in one direction and may lead to instability?
What does ATP stand for in the context of cellular processes?
What does ATP stand for in the context of cellular processes?
Which component of the cell membrane decreases membrane fluidity and permeability?
Which component of the cell membrane decreases membrane fluidity and permeability?
What is the basic unit of ATP production in an aerobic process?
What is the basic unit of ATP production in an aerobic process?
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
Which type of transport does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
Which type of transport does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
What is the primary energy source for primary active transport?
What is the primary energy source for primary active transport?
Which molecule maintains low intracellular Ca2+ concentration?
Which molecule maintains low intracellular Ca2+ concentration?
In which cells is H+ ATPase found?
In which cells is H+ ATPase found?
What is the driving force for substance transport in co-transport?
What is the driving force for substance transport in co-transport?
Which type of potential is generated when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient?
Which type of potential is generated when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient?
What does the Nernst potential represent?
What does the Nernst potential represent?
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
What is responsible for maintaining the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?
What is responsible for maintaining the concentration difference of sodium and potassium between the extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF)?
What is the basis for nerve function, established by the Na+ K+ ATPase pump?
What is the basis for nerve function, established by the Na+ K+ ATPase pump?
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
What is the main manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
What is the main manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Which factor of radiation affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
Which factor of radiation affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
Which nutritional deficiencies are major effects of radiation?
Which nutritional deficiencies are major effects of radiation?
What does ethanol metabolize to in the liver?
What does ethanol metabolize to in the liver?
What is the main impact of mercury on cells?
What is the main impact of mercury on cells?
What is the main effect of carbon monoxide on the body?
What is the main effect of carbon monoxide on the body?
Which age group shows poorer outcomes from severe carbon monoxide poisoning?
Which age group shows poorer outcomes from severe carbon monoxide poisoning?
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
What are the genetic changes caused by radiation exposure?
What are the genetic changes caused by radiation exposure?
What is the most typical feature of necrosis?
What is the most typical feature of necrosis?
What is the key difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
What is the key difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
What can dysregulated apoptosis lead to?
What can dysregulated apoptosis lead to?
Which process is described as a 'recycling center' and 'self-destructive'?
Which process is described as a 'recycling center' and 'self-destructive'?
What is a characteristic of cellular aging and frailty?
What is a characteristic of cellular aging and frailty?
What are the postmortem changes associated with somatic death?
What are the postmortem changes associated with somatic death?
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury?
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury?
What biochemical theme of pathophysiology causes destruction of cell membranes through oxygen-derived free radicals?
What biochemical theme of pathophysiology causes destruction of cell membranes through oxygen-derived free radicals?
Which response is triggered by decreased ATP levels due to hypoxia?
Which response is triggered by decreased ATP levels due to hypoxia?
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
What type of calcification is associated with excessive calcium deposition in damaged tissues?
What type of calcification is associated with excessive calcium deposition in damaged tissues?
Which common toxin is known for causing cellular alterations through exposure?
Which common toxin is known for causing cellular alterations through exposure?
What is the function of troponin in muscle contraction?
What is the function of troponin in muscle contraction?
What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?
Which protein blocks myosin head from attaching to actin in muscle contraction?
Which protein blocks myosin head from attaching to actin in muscle contraction?
What is the main function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
What is the main function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
What is the role of calmodulin in smooth muscle contraction?
What is the role of calmodulin in smooth muscle contraction?
What distinguishes smooth muscle from skeletal muscle in terms of excitation-contraction coupling?
What distinguishes smooth muscle from skeletal muscle in terms of excitation-contraction coupling?
Which process is most likely responsible for hypertrophy in cardiac cells?
Which process is most likely responsible for hypertrophy in cardiac cells?
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
What is the primary cause of reperfusion injury in tissues?
What is the primary cause of reperfusion injury in tissues?
What is the primary characteristic of action potentials?
What is the primary characteristic of action potentials?
What happens during the overshoot phase of the action potential?
What happens during the overshoot phase of the action potential?
What is the role of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the role of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the purpose of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated fibers?
What is the purpose of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated fibers?
What is the structure on the muscle fiber where a chemical synapse occurs with a motor neuron?
What is the structure on the muscle fiber where a chemical synapse occurs with a motor neuron?
What is the first step in the neuromuscular junction physiology?
What is the first step in the neuromuscular junction physiology?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
What characterizes myasthenia gravis?
What characterizes myasthenia gravis?
What is the role of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction?
What is the role of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction?
What is the primary effect of curariform drugs on the neuromuscular junction?
What is the primary effect of curariform drugs on the neuromuscular junction?
What is the impact of anti-AChE drugs such as neostigmine on neuromuscular junction physiology?
What is the impact of anti-AChE drugs such as neostigmine on neuromuscular junction physiology?
What characterizes positive feedback in relation to a physiological response?
What characterizes positive feedback in relation to a physiological response?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
Which substance is involved in the Breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
Which substance is involved in the Breakdown of carbs into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids?
In which type of transport does substance movement occur down a concentration gradient, without the requirement of energy or a carrier?
In which type of transport does substance movement occur down a concentration gradient, without the requirement of energy or a carrier?
What is the characteristic of negatively charged carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
What is the characteristic of negatively charged carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
What happens when the membrane is non-permeable to a molecule involved in diffusion?
What happens when the membrane is non-permeable to a molecule involved in diffusion?
What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?
What is the primary role of ATP in cellular processes?
What does the breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into acetyl-coA require?
What does the breakdown of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids into acetyl-coA require?
What is the primary characteristic of negatively stated carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
What is the primary characteristic of negatively stated carbohydrates in the cell membrane?
Which molecule undergoes processing into acetyl-coA during cellular energy production?
Which molecule undergoes processing into acetyl-coA during cellular energy production?
What type of transport involves substance movement down a concentration gradient without requiring energy or a carrier?
What type of transport involves substance movement down a concentration gradient without requiring energy or a carrier?
What does ATP serve as in cellular processes?
What does ATP serve as in cellular processes?
What protein 'nails on' tropomyosin in muscle contraction?
What protein 'nails on' tropomyosin in muscle contraction?
What is the primary function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
What is the primary function of sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction?
What causes atrophy in skeletal muscle and other organs?
What causes atrophy in skeletal muscle and other organs?
What controls the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle contraction?
What controls the interaction of actin and myosin in smooth muscle contraction?
What is the most likely cause of cellular hypertrophy in response to increased demand?
What is the most likely cause of cellular hypertrophy in response to increased demand?
What is the primary characteristic of metaplasia in cells?
What is the primary characteristic of metaplasia in cells?
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
Which process involves the recycling center of the cell, leading to self-destruction for survival purposes?
Which process involves the recycling center of the cell, leading to self-destruction for survival purposes?
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
What is the most common degenerative change caused by the shift of extracellular water into the cells?
What is the primary cause of frailty in aging individuals, particularly in women?
What is the primary cause of frailty in aging individuals, particularly in women?
What is the primary effect of ischemia, a common cause of hypoxia, on cellular responses?
What is the primary effect of ischemia, a common cause of hypoxia, on cellular responses?
What is the key factor that leads to putrefactive changes associated with the release of enzymes and lytic dissolution postmortem?
What is the key factor that leads to putrefactive changes associated with the release of enzymes and lytic dissolution postmortem?
Which biochemical theme in pathophysiology leads to the activation of enzymes and subsequent intracellular damage?
Which biochemical theme in pathophysiology leads to the activation of enzymes and subsequent intracellular damage?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes apoptosis from necrosis?
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes apoptosis from necrosis?
What is the main manifestation of cellular injury caused by infiltrations/accumulations?
What is the main manifestation of cellular injury caused by infiltrations/accumulations?
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury and determining structural patterns of disease?
What is the most common type of injury leading to cellular injury and determining structural patterns of disease?
What is the role of oxygen-derived free radicals in contributing to cell injury?
What is the role of oxygen-derived free radicals in contributing to cell injury?
What characterizes somatic death and distinguishes it from other forms of cell death?
What characterizes somatic death and distinguishes it from other forms of cell death?
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
What is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient called?
Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
Which of the following is a common manifestation of lead poisoning in adults?
What is the primary impact of carbon monoxide on the body?
What is the primary impact of carbon monoxide on the body?
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
Which element competes with calmodulin and alters neurotransmitter function?
What is a significant nutritional deficiency caused by ethanol?
What is a significant nutritional deficiency caused by ethanol?
In radiation exposure, which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
In radiation exposure, which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field?
Which characteristic is associated with mercury's impact on neuro disorders?
Which characteristic is associated with mercury's impact on neuro disorders?
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
How does carbon monoxide impact tissue hypoxia?
How does carbon monoxide impact tissue hypoxia?
What is a common manifestation of radiation exposure related to cell proliferation?
What is a common manifestation of radiation exposure related to cell proliferation?
How does ethanol alter folate homeostasis?
How does ethanol alter folate homeostasis?
What is a key factor affecting the impact of radiation exposure on tissue oxygenation?
What is a key factor affecting the impact of radiation exposure on tissue oxygenation?
What is the primary manifestation of mercury's high affinity to proteins?
What is the primary manifestation of mercury's high affinity to proteins?
Which type of transport requires no energy and does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
Which type of transport requires no energy and does not move against the electrochemical gradient?
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
What is the driving force for movement of water in osmosis?
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase 'Sodium Potassium Pump'?
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase 'Sodium Potassium Pump'?
What does the equilibrium potential represent?
What does the equilibrium potential represent?
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
What is the approximate range of the resting membrane potential (RMP) of a cell?
What is the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient called?
What is the potential difference across a membrane when an ion diffuses down its concentration gradient called?
Where is H+ ATPase found in the body?
Where is H+ ATPase found in the body?
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
What characterizes pathologic hyperplasia in cells?
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
What is the main factor that causes reperfusion injury in tissues?
Which type of transport requires molecules to be transported against their concentration gradient at the expense of energy?
Which type of transport requires molecules to be transported against their concentration gradient at the expense of energy?
What is the potential difference that depends on the size of the concentration gradient called?
What is the potential difference that depends on the size of the concentration gradient called?
What is the primary function of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the primary function of myelin in nerve fibers?
What is the main impact of inhibitors like curariform drugs on neuromuscular junction physiology?
What is the main impact of inhibitors like curariform drugs on neuromuscular junction physiology?
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
What happens to intracellular calcium levels when cardiac glycosides (digoxin) inhibit the Na/K ATPase pump?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
What stops depolarization at the motor end plate?
What is the role of acetylcholine in skeletal muscle excitation?
What is the role of acetylcholine in skeletal muscle excitation?
What are the basic characteristics of action potentials?
What are the basic characteristics of action potentials?
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
What is the primary purpose of the Nernst potential?
What is the primary purpose of the Nernst potential?
Which characteristic is associated with fragile X syndrome?
Which characteristic is associated with fragile X syndrome?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
What is the primary role of cholesterol in the cell membrane?
Which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field in radiation exposure?
Which factor affects cells not in the direct radiated field in radiation exposure?
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
What is the primary effect of lead on mitochondrial function?
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
What distinguishes dysplasia from hyperplasia?
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?
What is the primary role of the Na+ K+ ATPase (Sodium Potassium Pump)?
What is the primary purpose of modifier genes?
What is the primary purpose of modifier genes?
What does penetrance measure?
What does penetrance measure?
What distinguishes autosomal recessive diseases from autosomal dominant diseases?
What distinguishes autosomal recessive diseases from autosomal dominant diseases?
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
What is the primary function of myasthenia gravis treatment with anti-ChE (neostigmine)?
What role does telomerase play in cancer cells?
What role does telomerase play in cancer cells?
What is the primary impact of obesity on cancer risk?
What is the primary impact of obesity on cancer risk?
What is the process involved in the spread of cancer cells from the site of the original tumor to distant tissues and organs?
What is the process involved in the spread of cancer cells from the site of the original tumor to distant tissues and organs?
What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes in normal cells?
What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes in normal cells?
What is the main role of free radicals in inflammation and cancer development?
What is the main role of free radicals in inflammation and cancer development?
What is the primary characteristic of metastatic cells that allows them to withstand physiologic stresses during travel in the blood and lymphatic circulation?
What is the primary characteristic of metastatic cells that allows them to withstand physiologic stresses during travel in the blood and lymphatic circulation?
What is the primary impact of decreased physical activity on cancer risk?
What is the primary impact of decreased physical activity on cancer risk?
What is the primary role of angiogenesis in cancer cell and tumor growth?
What is the primary role of angiogenesis in cancer cell and tumor growth?
What is the main role of caretaker genes in normal cells?
What is the main role of caretaker genes in normal cells?
What is the main cause of chromosome instability in cancer cells?
What is the main cause of chromosome instability in cancer cells?
What is the main consequence of multiple mutations in cancer development?
What is the main consequence of multiple mutations in cancer development?
What is a primary characteristic of benign tumors?
What is a primary characteristic of benign tumors?
Which characteristic is associated with malignant tumors?
Which characteristic is associated with malignant tumors?
What does anaplasia in malignant tumors refer to?
What does anaplasia in malignant tumors refer to?
What is the meaning of carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
What is the meaning of carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
What are the three fates associated with preinvasive epithelial tumors?
What are the three fates associated with preinvasive epithelial tumors?
What is the primary process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell?
What is the primary process during which a cell becomes a cancer cell?
What is one characteristic of cancer stem cells?
What is one characteristic of cancer stem cells?
What are the three genetic mechanisms that have a role in carcinogenesis?
What are the three genetic mechanisms that have a role in carcinogenesis?
What is the main function of Carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
What is the main function of Carcinoma in situ (CIS)?
What is a common characteristic of malignant tumors?
What is a common characteristic of malignant tumors?
What is one characteristic associated with anaplasia in malignant tumors?
What is one characteristic associated with anaplasia in malignant tumors?
What is one characteristic associated with benign tumors?
What is one characteristic associated with benign tumors?
What does Carcinoma in situ (CIS) refer to?
What does Carcinoma in situ (CIS) refer to?
Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?
Which virus is associated with Kaposi sarcoma?
Which ionizing radiation is associated with acute leukemias?
Which ionizing radiation is associated with acute leukemias?
Which cancer is NOT associated with HPV infection?
Which cancer is NOT associated with HPV infection?
What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer?
What is the primary cause of mesothelioma and lung cancer?
What is the most common type of skin cancer associated with UV radiation?
What is the most common type of skin cancer associated with UV radiation?
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
Which ion transport mechanisms are altered by lead poisoning?
What is the primary cause of putrefactive changes postmortem?
What is the primary cause of putrefactive changes postmortem?
What does trisomy 21 refer to?
What does trisomy 21 refer to?
What is a common source of environmental exposure linked to childhood cancers?
What is a common source of environmental exposure linked to childhood cancers?
What is the primary cause of paraneoplastic syndromes?
What is the primary cause of paraneoplastic syndromes?
During transcription, what is the role of transcription factors?
During transcription, what is the role of transcription factors?
What is the critical function of gene splicing in transcription?
What is the critical function of gene splicing in transcription?
What facilitates the interaction between mRNA and tRNA during translation?
What facilitates the interaction between mRNA and tRNA during translation?
What is the result of frameshift mutation?
What is the result of frameshift mutation?
Which condition results from aneuploidy that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes?
Which condition results from aneuploidy that does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes?
What is the typical outcome of autosomal aneuploidy?
What is the typical outcome of autosomal aneuploidy?
What is the characteristic feature of Turner Syndrome?
What is the characteristic feature of Turner Syndrome?
What genetic event leads to Klinefelter Syndrome?
What genetic event leads to Klinefelter Syndrome?
What is the primary cause of Down Syndrome?
What is the primary cause of Down Syndrome?
What is the outcome of a zygote having three copies of each chromosome instead of two?
What is the outcome of a zygote having three copies of each chromosome instead of two?
What is the common outcome for individuals with Down Syndrome?
What is the common outcome for individuals with Down Syndrome?
What characterizes sex chromosome aneuploidies compared to autosomal aneuploidies?
What characterizes sex chromosome aneuploidies compared to autosomal aneuploidies?
Flashcards
Positive Feedback
Positive Feedback
A process that amplifies changes in one direction, potentially leading to instability.
Negative Feedback
Negative Feedback
A process that promotes stability by reversing the original response to restore homeostasis.
Cell Membrane
Cell Membrane
The outer boundary of a cell, composed of a lipid bilayer, which provides selectivity to the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
Integral Proteins
Integral Proteins
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Peripheral Proteins
Peripheral Proteins
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Cholesterol
Cholesterol
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ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis
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Diffusion
Diffusion
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Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
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Primary Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
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Na+/K+ ATPase Pump
Na+/K+ ATPase Pump
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Lead Poisoning
Lead Poisoning
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Acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
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Mercury
Mercury
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis
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Necrosis
Necrosis
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Action Potential
Action Potential
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Calmodulin
Calmodulin
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
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Atrophy
Atrophy
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Reperfusion Injury
Reperfusion Injury
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Somatic Death
Somatic Death
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Putrefactive Changes
Putrefactive Changes
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Cellular Aging
Cellular Aging
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Degenerative Changes
Degenerative Changes
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Study Notes
Feedback Mechanisms
- Negative feedback promotes stability by reversing the original response to restore homeostasis.
- Positive feedback amplifies changes in one direction, potentially leading to instability.
Cellular Components
- The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane provides selectivity and can include integral or peripheral proteins.
- Cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity and permeability.
- Integral proteins regulate transport and are essential for various cellular functions.
Cellular Energy and Processes
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) serves as the primary energy source for cellular processes.
- Glycolysis involves the breakdown of carbohydrates into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids.
Transport Mechanisms
- Facilitated diffusion requires carrier proteins, unlike simple diffusion which does not.
- Diffusion is the movement of ions/substances/molecules down a concentration gradient.
- Primary active transport uses ATP as the energy source and does not move against the electrochemical gradient.
Ion Transport and Homeostasis
- The Na+/K+ ATPase pump maintains sodium and potassium concentration differences between extracellular and intracellular fluids.
- Intracellular calcium levels rise when cardiac glycosides inhibit the Na+/K+ ATPase pump, impacting cardiac function.
Toxicity and Cellular Effects
- Lead poisoning leads to disruption of ion transport mechanisms, causing various neurological and hematological effects.
- Ethanol metabolizes to acetaldehyde in the liver, impacting cellular processes.
- Mercury adversely affects cellular function and can cause significant toxicity.
Physiological Responses
- Apoptosis is a controlled mechanism of cell death, while necrosis results from acute injury and inflammation.
- Dysregulated apoptosis can contribute to diseases like cancer.
- The action potential is characterized by rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane.
Muscle Contraction Mechanism
- Calcium ions play a critical role in muscle contraction by interacting with troponin, which then displaces tropomyosin from actin sites.
- The sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for calcium storage and releases calcium during muscle contraction.
- Calmodulin regulates smooth muscle contraction, distinguishing it from skeletal muscle.
Cellular Injury and Death
- Reperfusion injury results from the restoration of blood flow leading to oxidative stress and inflammation.
- Atrophy may result from disuse of skeletal muscle or other organs due to lack of stimulation.
- Somatic death is characterized by the cessation of all physiological functions, including heart and brain activity.
Aging and Degeneration
- Cellular aging and frailty are marked by decreased functionality and regenerative capacity.
- Common degenerative changes involve the atrophy of tissues and are often linked to increased accumulation of cellular debris.
Post-Mortem Changes
- Putrefactive changes occur postmortem due to enzyme release and lytic dissolution in cells.
- Changes in tissue composition can occur due to ischemia and subsequent hypoxia, affecting cell viability.
Conclusion
- Understanding cellular mechanisms, feedback loops, and responses to injury is crucial in diagnosing and treating a wide range of conditions.
- Knowledge of the distinctions between apoptosis and necrosis can guide therapeutic interventions in various diseases.
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