Muhammad Ali Pasha's Egypt

• محمد علي باشا founded the العلوي dynasty, which ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1952.
• Born in Qula, Macedonia in 1769.
• He came to Egypt as part of an Ottoman military force to fight against the French campaign.
• Exploited the chaos after the French withdrawal to consolidate power.
• Eliminated the Mamluks in the Citadel massacre in 1811, strengthening his rule.

Reforms and Modernizations

• Implemented extensive reforms in the army, agriculture, industry, and education.
• Established a modern European-style army, conscripting Egyptians and Sudanese.
• Introduced long-staple cotton, leading to an economic boom.
• Founded factories for textiles, weapons, among other products.
• Sent educational missions to Europe to prepare qualified personnel.
• Established modern schools for sciences and the arts.

Expansion and Wars

• Led military campaigns to expand influence in the Arabian Peninsula, Sudan, Syria, and Greece.
• Sent a campaign to the Arabian Peninsula to eliminate the Wahhabi movement.
• Annexed Sudan to secure water and gold resources and recruit more soldiers.
• Fought the Ottoman Empire in Syria, nearly overthrowing it until European intervention.
• Participated in the Greek War of Independence at the request of the Ottoman Sultan, but lost the Egyptian fleet at the Battle of Navarino.

Relationship with the Ottoman Empire

• He was the governor of Egypt, subordinate to the Ottoman Empire, but enjoyed great autonomy.
• Sought to establish an independent hereditary state for his family in Egypt.
• Relations with Sultan Mahmud II strained due to Muhammad Ali's expansionist ambitions.
• The Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Muhammad Ali's hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan under the Treaty of London in 1840.

Internal Policies

• Followed a strong central policy in governing Egypt.
• Seized agricultural lands and distributed them to peasants under the iltizam system.
• Imposed taxes and fees on various economic activities to finance his projects.
• Appointed his sons and family members to high positions in the state.

Historical Impact

• Considered the founder of modern Egypt.
• Reforms led to the modernization and development of Egypt in various fields.
• Policies laid the foundation for the modern Egyptian state.
• Expansionist ambitions sparked conflict with the Ottoman Empire and European powers.
• Left a complex legacy, regarded by some as a national hero and reformer, while others view him as a despotic and ambitious ruler.

Successors

• Ibrahim Pasha ruled briefly after Muhammad Ali's death.
• Abbas I, Muhammad Ali's grandson, saw his reign marked by reactionism and stagnation of reforms.
• Said Pasha focused on developing agriculture, transport and communications.
• Ismail Pasha, also a grandson of Muhammad Ali, his era considered a period of cultural and urban prosperity, but also saw increased debt and foreign intervention.
• Tewfik Pasha's reign witnessed the Urabi Revolution and the British occupation of Egypt.

Agriculture during Muhammad Ali's Era

• Introduction of long-staple cotton considered one of his most important economic achievements; Egyptian cotton became among the finest in the world.
• Development of the irrigation system involved improving irrigation networks and digging canals to increase cultivated areas.
• Implemented a monopoly system where Muhammad Ali monopolized the trade of agricultural crops to ensure the state received the largest possible profits.

Industry In Muhammad Ali's Era

• Establishment of government factories: Muhammad Ali established many factories to produce textiles, weapons, sugar, and other products.
• Import of foreign expertise: Muhammad Ali sought the help of foreign experts to train Egyptians in modern industries.
• Providing raw materials: Muhammad Ali provided the raw materials needed for industry through agriculture and mining.

Education In Muhammad Ali's Era

• Establishment of modern schools: Muhammad Ali founded primary, secondary, and higher schools to teach various sciences and arts.
• Sending educational missions to Europe: Muhammad Ali sent Egyptian students to Europe to study at universities and higher institutes.
• Translating foreign books: Muhammad Ali ordered the translation of foreign books into Arabic to spread knowledge and culture.
• Establishment of the School of Languages: Muhammad Ali founded the School of Languages to teach foreign languages and graduate translators.

The Army In Muhammad Ali's Era

• Enlisting Egyptians and Sudanese: Muhammad Ali enlisted Egyptians and Sudanese in the army instead of relying on Turkish and Albanian soldiers.
• Training in European methods: Muhammad Ali trained the Egyptian army in modern European military methods.
• Building the naval fleet: Muhammad Ali built a strong naval fleet to protect Egypt's coasts and strengthen its influence in the region.
• Founding the School of Engineering: Muhammad Ali founded the Military Engineering School to graduate military officers and engineers.