Mughal Empire: Establishment and Akbar

• Mughals ruled over Delhi and large parts of the Indian subcontinent for over 200 years.

Establishment of the Mughal Empire

• Babur established control over Delhi and Agra, becoming the first Mughal ruler
• Humayun succeeded Babur, followed by Akbar at age 13, with Bairam Khan initially managing the empire's affairs
• Akbar expanded and consolidated the Mughal empire through military campaigns in northern and central India

Akbar

• Akbar is a famous Mughal ruler known for military campaigns and expanding the empire.
• Akbar defeated rulers of Malwa, Gondwana, Chittor, Ranthambore and Gujarat.
• Akbar defeated Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576 CE.
• Akbar introduced administrative changes, creating military and judicial departments and appointing officers.
• Akbar treated people of all religions equally.
• Monuments were constructed during Akbar's reign, including Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar died in 1605 CE.
• Jahangir, Akbar's son, succeeded him continued the administrative system developed by Akbar.
• Fort of Ahmadnagar, Kangra, and Mewar were brought under Mughal rule during Jahangir's reign.
• Jahangir married Nur Jahan in 1611 CE, who was influential in administration.
• Jahangir died in 1627 CE and was succeeded by Shah Jahan after a power struggle.

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan became emperor and brought Bijapur and Golconda under Mughal rule.
• Shah Jahan's reign is known for monuments like Taj Mahal and Jama Masjid.
• Shah Jahan shifted the capital from Agra to Delhi, building Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
• Shah Jahan's reign is known as the Golden Age of the Mughal empire.

Aurangzeb and the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Aurangzeb was Shah Jahan's son.
• Aurangzeb imprisoned his father and became emperor in 1658 CE.
• Aurangzeb ruled for around 50 years.
• The Mughal empire reached its largest extent under Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb fought wars with the Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs.
• Aurangzeb discontinued policies of previous Mughal rulers.
• Aurangzeb's successors were weak and inefficient, leading to the Mughal empire's decline.
• Governors took advantage of weak Mughal rule and revolted.
• The arrival of European trading companies also contributed to the decline.

Climate

• Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place.
• Climate is the weather condition of a place calculated over a long period.
• Factors affecting climate include location, altitude and distance from the sea.
• Places closer to the equator experience hot climates.
• Higher altitudes experience cooler climates, demonstrated by Srinagar being colder than Mussoorie.
• Places far from the sea have hot summers and cold winters.

Seasons of India

• Summer lasts from April to June, with high temperatures in many places.
• The Deccan plateau and higher altitude locations have pleasant weather during summer.
• "Loo" is a hot and dry wind that blows in northern India.
• The southern part of India is a peninsula and is less hot than northern India.
• The weather becomes humid before the rainy season.
• The monsoon season starts around the end of June and continues to September.
• Monsoon winds blow over the Arabian Sea and reach the Indian subcontinent and bring rain.
• Mumbai and Meghalaya receive heavy rainfall, while Rajasthan receives scanty rainfall.
• Tamil Nadu receives rainfall in October and November.

Monsoon

• Monsoon provides relief from the hot summer weather.
• Heavy rainfall may cause damage in some places.
• Heavy rainfall in the Northern Mountains may cause the water level of rivers to rise, causing floods.
• Some places experience drought due to scanty rainfall.
• Rainfall helps crops and plants to grow.
• Cherries and litchis are some fruits available during the monsoon season.

Autumn

• Autumn occurs after monsoon and before winter; the weather is cool and pleasant.
• Autumn is experienced only in some parts of India.

Winter

• Winter begins in mid-November, with December and January being the coldest months.
• The Northern Mountains experience snowfall, and the Northern Plains experience cold conditions.
• Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh coast receives rainfall in winter.
• The Peninsular Plateau experiences pleasant weather.
• The weather is pleasant during the day in the Thar Desert but gets cold at night.

Spring

• Spring is after winter and before summer, with pleasant weather.
• Trees and plants bear new leaves, fruits and flowers in spring.
• Spring and autumn are mostly experienced in places like Jammu and Kashmir.

Factors Affecting Climate

• Location, altitude, and distance from the sea are some of the factors that influence climate.

Forests of India

• A forest is a large area of land covered with trees and shrubs.
• Forests provide oxygen, firewood, timber, paper, and medicinal herbs.
• Forests are home to wild animals and birds.
• Tree roots hold soil, prevent it from being washed away during rains.
• Forests keep surrounding areas cool and make soil fertile.
• Forests help to bring more rainfall to a region.
• Types of forests in India include evergreen, deciduous, thorn and scrub, mountain and tidal or mangrove forests.

Types of Forests in India

• Evergreen forests are dense and tall, found on the Western Ghats, northeast India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Deciduous forests shed leaves in the dry season.
• Deciduous forests are found in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and the Peninsular Plateau.
• Thorn and scrub forests have long roots, thorns and thick stems and are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
• Mountain forests contain tall trees and cones.
• Mountain forests are found in Himalayan regions and have pine, spruce and deodar trees.
• Tidal or mangrove forests are dense and have special roots.
• Tidal forests are found in the deltas of Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

Natural Resources

• Natural resources that are limited in quantity are called exhaustible resources.
• Petroleum and coal are examples of exhaustible resources.
• Inexhaustible resources are present in plenty and do not reduce even after continuous use.
• Air and sunlight are examples of inexhaustible resources.

Industries of India

• Notebooks and pencils are made from wood.
• Manufacturing is when raw materials are turned into finished goods in a factory, with the help of machines.
• The raw material needed for the industry should be cheap and easily available so that too much money is not spent on buying it.
• A cheap and uninterrupted power supply is necessary for the smooth running of an industry.
• Industry requires money to buy raw materials and machines.
• The smooth running of an industry requires transportation (trucks and railways).
• Industry requires people (labour) to run the machines and do other tasks.

Types of Industries (based on size)

• Cottage industries are very small in size and are usually set up in people's homes.
• Cottage industries require very few people and use simple tools.
• Cottage industries usually make handicraft items such as baskets, pottery and handmade toys.
• Small-scale industries require more people than cottage industries.
• People in small-scale industries work in small factories and use small machines.
• Utensils, plastic goods and furniture are some items made in small-scale industries.
• Large-scale industries are big industries where thousands of people work.
• Automobile manufacturing, iron and steel industry, aeroplane manufacturing, shipbuilding and cloth-making industries are examples of large-scale industries.

Impact of Industries

• Industries provide many useful products to us.
• Many industries pollute our environment by throwing waste into water bodies and adding harmful gases into the air.
• Some countries are using wind power and hydroelectricity in the manufacturing process to keep the air and water free from pollution.

The Delhi Sultanate

• During the Medieval Period, Rajputs and empires like Chalukya, Pallava, Chola, Chera and Pandya became powerful.
• Mahmud of Ghazni became ruler of Ghazni in 998 CE and attacked Somnath Temple.
• Muhammad Ghori attacked the Indian subcontinent after Mahmud of Ghazni, fighting Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Muhammad Ghori's slave, Qutbuddin Aibak, looked after Delhi, marking the beginning of the Mamluk dynasty.
• The Delhi Sultanate consisted of the Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasties.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad and back.
• Firoze Shah Tughlaq was the last powerful ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
• Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid dynasty.
• Bahlul Lodi captured Delhi and established the Lodi dynasty.
• Ibrahim Lodi was an important ruler of the Lodi dynasty.
• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 CE in the First Battle of Panipat.