Motor Learning and Transfer

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Questions and Answers

What defines how a generalized motor program is executed?

Parameters (correct)

Memory tracking

Invariant features

Motor learning

Which of the following is NOT a key process of early brain development?

Cell migration and differentiation

Dendritic arborisation

Synaptogenesis

Neural retraction (correct)

What primarily limits brain plasticity in adults compared to children?

Enhanced memory acquisition

Dramatic structural changes

Cell death and retraction (correct)

Increased synaptic strength

What is a characteristic of dynamic systems in motor control?

Emergence of movement patterns Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of Michael Jordan's challenge in transitioning to baseball is tied to brain plasticity?

Difficulty in visual motor skills development Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following features of generalized motor programs remains invariant?

Order of actions Signup and view all the answers

How are parameters of generalized motor programs modified?

Dependent on environmental conditions Signup and view all the answers

What type of skill is hitting a baseball primarily considered?

Visual motor skill Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between open-loop and closed-loop control systems?

Open-loop systems do not require attention, whereas closed-loop systems do. Signup and view all the answers

What does the degrees of freedom (df) problem refer to in motor control?

The complexity of managing all muscles and joints during a movement. Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone exhibit less coordination when they are younger?

Coordination improves with age due to a reduction in stiffness. Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario would an open-loop control system be most effective?

Clapping hands or high-fiving someone. Signup and view all the answers

How does dynamical systems theory relate to the development of behavior?

It explains the refinement of movement patterns through experience. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a closed-loop control system?

It operates effectively in fast-paced, uncontrolled environments. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential benefit of bilateral transfer in motor learning?

Facilitating skill transfer between limbs in diverse contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What type of learner would most benefit from auditory instructions during a sporting activity?

Auditory learners who thrive on verbal guidance. Signup and view all the answers

What does the complexity of a skill primarily refer to?

The number of parts and their attention demands Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of Fitts and Posner's model is characterized by a high level of conscious control and limited memory for detail?

Cognitive Stage Signup and view all the answers

In Gentile’s two-stage model, what is the primary focus during the Later stage?

Adapting and achieving consistent performance Signup and view all the answers

What type of skills require adaptability according to Gentile's two-stage model?

Open skills Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the Automated Stage in motor learning?

Ability to multitask with minimal processing demand Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes task analysis?

Evaluating the complexity and organization of a skill Signup and view all the answers

During which learning stage is an individual likely to self-correct their actions based on mapped cues to responses?

Associative Stage Signup and view all the answers

What is a factor that influences the overall motor skill performance according to the constraints model?

Task requirements and environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of positive transfer in learning?

It allows skills learned from one activity to enhance performance in another. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle of practice involves mastering a skill in smaller, manageable parts before performing the whole skill?

Part practice Signup and view all the answers

What is a challenge associated with negative transfer during skill acquisition?

It creates mental and cognitive confusion. Signup and view all the answers

When should demonstration be implemented in the instruction process?

When clarity about the skill is required. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of transfer describes the skill movement from one limb to another?

Bilateral transfer Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of effective presentation during a demonstration?

Being enthusiastic and checking for understanding. Signup and view all the answers

Which practice principle involves practicing the entire skill at once?

Whole practice Signup and view all the answers

What impact does mental confusion have on performance during skill transfer?

It reduces the chance of successful skill application. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes massed practice?

Continuous practice with minimal breaks Signup and view all the answers

Which group is more likely to benefit from distributed practice?

Beginners learning new skills Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of neural plasticity?

Lifelong changes in neural pathways based on experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a critical period in motor development?

The phase where sensitivity to develop new skills is maximized Signup and view all the answers

How is maturation influenced by environmental factors in motor skill development?

Nurturing can enhance skill development and readiness Signup and view all the answers

Which practice type is often recommended for tasks that are difficult or boring?

Distributed practice Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of aging can significantly impact motor development?

A decline in fine motor coordination Signup and view all the answers

What type of skill is characterized by applying force to an object to project it?

Ballistic skills Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Bilateral Transfer

Occurs when learning a skill with one limb transfers to the other limb.
Two main reasons:
- Motor control system needs to adapt to the environmental context.
- Mental and cognitive confusion.

Learning Styles

Visual learner: Demonstrations are beneficial, like showing a specific technique visually. Example: showing a basketball player how to shoot a free throw.
Auditory learner: Verbal explanations and cues help, such as providing a step-by-step breakdown of a dance move. Example: explaining the rhythm and timing of the dance move.
Kinaesthetic learner: Hands–on learning is crucial, such as practicing the skill repeatedly. Example: allowing a tennis player to practice their backhand swing.

Degrees of Freedom Problem

The nervous system needs to coordinate many muscles and joints for complex movements.
Degrees of freedom (DOF) = Number of independent elements in a system and how they interact.
As coordination improves, the DOF problem is "freed" leading to refined skills.
Young children are less coordinated and "stiffer" because they are less coordinated.

Open- vs. Closed-Loop Control Systems

Open-loop control system:
- All information needed to complete a task is contained in the initial instructions.
- Feedback is received AFTER the movement.
- Typically used for FAST movements.
- Minimally demanding on attention.
- Best suited for controlled environments.
- Example: Clapping your hands.
Closed-loop control system:
- Feedback is received DURING the movement for corrections.
- Typically used for SLOWER movements.
- Useful for skilled movements.
- Example: Walking on a high rope.

Generalized Motor Program (GMP) vs. Dynamic Systems Theory

GMP:
- A central memory-based mechanism that controls motor performance.
- Stores a class of movements.
- Uses one program for similar movement outputs.
- Parameters (changeable): Define how to execute the program, such as time, force, and muscles used.
- Invariant features (fixed): The sequence of actions or order of components is fixed.
Dynamic Systems Theory:
- Control and movement are self-organized based on task, person, and environment characteristics.
- A movement pattern emerges as a function of constraints.
- Environment, body constraints, and the task all influence the system.

Early Brain Development

Key processes:
- Cell migration and differentiation
- Axon growth
- Dendritic arborisation
- Neurotransmitter synthesis
- Glial-neural interactions
- Synaptogenesis
- Myelination

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change neural pathways based on new experiences.
More dramatic changes during development than in adulthood.
Adult brain plasticity is mainly related to strengthening existing connections.

Michael Jordan & Baseball (Critical Period)

Michael Jordan's difficulties in transitioning to elite baseball suggest there are limitations to brain plasticity.
Transitioning requires learning a new visual motor skill.
Early childhood exposure to sports is crucial, shaping the brain's development and learning.
The brain is most plastic at younger ages, making it difficult for adults to learn new skills at the same level as skilled children.

Constraints Model

The optimal pattern of coordination is determined by the learner, task, and environment.
Success in motor skills requires a high enough level to meet the demands of the task and environmental context.

Skill Types

Task analysis:
- Discrete: Defined beginning and end (e.g., a serve in tennis).
- Serial: A series of discrete movements (e.g., a dance routine).
- Continuous: No clear beginning or end (e.g., running).
- Fine: Involves small muscle movements (e.g., playing the piano).
- Gross: Involves large muscle movements (e.g., swimming).
- Open: Unpredictable environment (e.g., playing basketball).
- Closed: Predictable environment (e.g., hitting a golf ball).
Task complexity:
- How many parts are in the skill and its attention demands.
Task organization:
- How each part of a skill relates to one another—timing and rhythm.

Stages of Learning

Fitts & Posner Model:
- Cognitive Stage:
  - Understanding the task.
  - Requires a lot of conscious control and attention.
  - Significant errors, variable performance.
  - Large improvements.
- Associative Stage:
  - Practice and selection of the best strategy.
  - Chaining and grouping actions together.
  - Reduced variability.
  - Errors are still common.
  - Shifts focus to fine control details.
- Automated Stage:
  - Subconscious control of the skill.
  - Minimal processing demands.
  - Focus shifts to environmental cues.
  - Adaptive skill ability.
  - Rapid decision-making.
  - Smooth coordination and accurate responding.
Gentile's Two-Stage Model:
- Initial Stage: Getting an idea of the movement.
  - Recognizable coordination pattern.
  - Discrimination of regulatory conditions (cues that affect the movement).
- Later Stage: Fixation or diversification, adapting for consistency and efficient effort.
  - Closed skill: Fixation (consistency).
  - Open skill: Diversification (adaptability).

Performance Curves

Graphs showing progress in skill learning.

Motor Abilities & Talent Identification

Motor abilities are underlying traits that influence performance.
Important for talent identification and predicting success.
Considerations:
- Variability in ability within individuals.
- Different abilities contribute to different sports.

Demonstration & Instruction

Demonstration:
- When to implement, frequency, speed, verbal cues, and presentation.
Instruction:
- Providing feedback and information.
- Check for understanding.
Effective presentation:
- Clear, enthusiastic, and checking for understanding.

Transfer of Learning

Positive transfer: Beneficial transfer of knowledge from previous skills.
Negative transfer: Prior experience negatively impacts performance.
Bilateral transfer: Transfer of learning from one limb to another.

Principles of Practice

Whole practice:
- Practice the entire skill.
- Ideal for skills with high organization and low complexity.
Part practice:
- Practice parts of the skill individually.
- Useful for complex skills.
Massed practice:
- Continuous practice with minimal rest.
- Suitable for skilled performers.
Distributed practice:
- Practice with longer rest periods.
- Beneficial for novices and demanding skills.
Mental practice:
- Imagining or visualizing the skill without physically performing it.

Feedback

Information about performance.
Types:
- Knowledge of results (KR): Information about the outcome.
- Knowledge of performance (KP): Information about the movement execution.
Considerations:
- Frequency, timing, and specificity of feedback.

Motor Development

Neural plasticity: Ability of the brain to change based on experience.
Critical period: Specific time when the brain is most sensitive to learning.
Maturation and environment: Interaction of biological factors and experience.
Skill development: Progress from reflexes to more complex locomotor, ballistic, and manipulation skills.
Ageing and motor development:
- Skill changes, decline in function, an increased risk of falls.

Lab Topics

Key concepts covered in labs.
Don't need to know specific lab activities.
Example lab topics: Esplanade activities, juggling experiment, anticipation, dual-tasking, implicit learning, and MAND.

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Description

Explore the concepts of bilateral transfer and learning styles in motor skills. Understand how different learners benefit from visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic approaches. Additionally, delve into the degrees of freedom problem in coordinating complex movements.