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Questions and Answers
Which of the following factors can influence the recovery of function after a brain injury?
What is meant by 'Use it or Lose it' in the context of neural plasticity?
What encompasses the concept of neural plasticity?
Which stage of recovery includes specific interventions designed to impact neural mechanisms?
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Which principle of experience-dependent plasticity emphasizes the importance of training intensity?
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Which component is NOT considered a primary factor influencing movement?
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In the context of movement tasks, 'closed tasks' are characterized by:
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Which type of learning involves automatic performance of tasks without conscious thought?
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What concept refers to the body's ability to reorganize movement strategies in response to changing environments?
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Fitts and Posner's 3-Stage Model includes which of the following stages?
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Which of the following reflects the concept of 'dynamic systems theory' in motor control?
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What type of task requires a moving base of support?
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What characterizes the advanced stage of motor learning?
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Which stage of Gentile’s 2-Stage Model focuses on refining the movement and adapting to task and environmental demands?
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What is true about intrinsic feedback in motor learning?
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What is a benefit of using a fading schedule for feedback?
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In motor learning, what does 'contextual interference' refer to?
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In the early stages of learning a new motor skill, why might co-activation of muscles be observed?
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What is the primary focus of mental practice in motor learning?
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Which practice condition involves practicing tasks in constant conditions?
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What is the benefit of using part training in motor learning?
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Study Notes
Motor Control and Movement
- Motor control is the ability to regulate and direct the mechanisms necessary for movement.
- Movement arises from the interaction of the individual, the task, and the environment.
- The individual's characteristics, experiences, and task difficulty influence movement.
- The environment's impact on movement includes factors like weight of objects, noise, distraction, and lighting.
Movement Task Classifications
- Discrete Tasks: Have a clear beginning and end, like throwing a ball.
- Continuous Tasks: No defined endpoint, like walking or cycling.
- Closed Tasks: Performed in stable and predictable environments, like playing table tennis.
- Open Tasks: Require adaptation in changing and unpredictable environments, like playing basketball.
- Stability Tasks: Performed with a non-moving base of support, like standing.
- Mobility Tasks: Involve moving the base of support, like walking.
- Manipulation Tasks: Involve movement of the upper extremities, like writing.
- Non-Manipulation Tasks: No specific upper extremity movement, like walking straight ahead.
Theories of Motor Control
- Reflex Theory: Complex behavior is a result of chained reflexes.
- Hierarchical Theory: Higher levels of the nervous system control lower levels for organized movement.
- Motor Programming Theories: Motor programs are activated by sensory stimuli or central processes, guiding movement execution.
- Systems Theory: Control of movement is distributed across interacting systems across the body, emphasizing the role of biomechanics and self-organization.
- Ecological Theory: Perceptual information within a specific environment guides goal-directed action.
Systems Theory Key Concepts
- Degrees of Freedom: Coordination involves mastering the many ways to move, balancing multiple joints and muscles.
- Synergies: Groups of muscles working together for stability and flexibility.
- Self-Organization: Emerges naturally from the interaction of elements without central commands.
- Non-linear Behavior: Movement transforms into a new configuration when a parameter reaches a critical value.
- Variability: Variability in movement is not error, but necessary for optimal function and adaptation.
Motor Control Theories: Clinical Applications
- Provide a framework for understanding patient behavior.
- Guide clinical interventions based on theoretical principles.
- Offer working hypotheses for examination and treatment.
Sensory Processing and Motor Control
- Sensing: Peripheral receptors gather information about external and internal environments.
- Perceiving: Sensory information is processed in the sensory cortices.
- Interpreting: Higher-level processing occurs in parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
- Conceptualization: Prefrontal cortex and higher association areas generate movement intentions.
- Strategy/Planning: Supplementary motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum plan and coordinate movement.
- Activation: Primary motor cortex and basal ganglia activate muscles.
- Execution: Motor neurons send signals to muscles for movement execution.
Motor Learning: Basic Concepts
- Learning: Acquisition of knowledge or ability.
- Memory: Outcome of learning, involving retention and storage.
- Implicit Memory: Unconscious and automatic.
- Explicit Memory: Conscious and intentional.
- Motor Learning: Acquisition and modification of skilled actions, incorporating perception, cognition, and action processes.
- Performance: Temporary change in motor behavior seen during practice.
Memory Systems
- Sensory Memory: Brief and fleeting sensory information.
- Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity, holding information for a few moments, essential for working memory.
- Working Memory: Active processing of information from short-term and long-term memory.
- Long-Term Memory: Vast capacity for information and long-term retention, formed through learning.
- Nondeclarative (Implicit): Unconscious learning, includes non-associative (habituation, sensitization), associative (classical and operant conditioning), and procedural learning.
- Declarative (Explicit): Conscious recall of facts and events, involving the medial temporal lobe, sensory association cortex, and hippocampus.
Nondeclarative (Implicit) Learning
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Nonassociative: Repeated single stimulus.
- Habituation: Decreased response to repetitive stimulus.
- Sensitization: Increased response to stimulus.
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Associative:
- Classical Conditioning: Learning to pair two stimuli (Pavlov's dogs).
- Operant Conditioning: Learning to associate a response with a consequence.
- Procedural: Habitual and automatic tasks, learned through practice.
Declarative (Explicit) Learning
- Encoding: Requires attention and meaningful association with existing knowledge.
- Consolidation: Stabilizing information for long-term storage.
- Storage: Long-term retention with vast capacity.
- Retrieval: Recall of information from storage sites.
Motor Learning Theories: Schmidt's Schema Theory
- Generalized Motor Programs (GMPs): Contain rules for producing movement patterns.
- Explains flexibility and adaptation to variations in movement execution.
Motor Learning Theories: Ecological Theory
- Perceptual/motor Workspace: Learning involves exploring sensory and motor options to create optimal strategies.
Stages of Motor Learning: Fitts and Posner's 3-Stage Model
- Cognitive Stage: Focus on understanding and developing strategies.
- Associative Stage: Refining the selected strategy.
- Autonomous Stage: Automaticity and low attention demands.
Stages of Motor Learning: Bernstein's 3-Stage Approach
- Novice Stage: Constraining degrees of freedom for stability.
- Advanced Stage: Releasing degrees of freedom for more complex movement.
- Expert Stage: Full control and efficiency of movement execution.
Stages of Motor Learning: Gentile's 2-Stage Model
- Stage 1: Develop understanding of the task, goal, and environment.
- Stage 2: Refine the movement skill, adapting to task and environmental demands.
Stages of Motor Program Formation
- Initially: Separate programs for each component of a movement.
- Mid Practice: Combining component programs into larger units.
- Late Practice: Integration of all components under a single motor program.
Motor Learning Feedback
- Intrinsic Feedback: Sensory information from the body about the movement.
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Extrinsic Feedback: Supplementary information, including verbal or tactile cues, given during or after the task.
- Concurrent feedback: During the task.
- Terminal feedback: At the end of the task.
- Knowledge of results: Outcome of the movement relative to the goal.
- Knowledge of performance: Feedback about the movement pattern itself.
Feedback Frequency and Preciseness
- Fading Schedule: More feedback early in practice, gradually decreasing it later.
- Best Number of Trials: Depends on task complexity, with feedback less frequent for complex tasks.
- Preciseness: Quantitative data is better for adults, while children may benefit from simpler descriptions.
Motor Learning Practice Conditions
- Massed Practice: More practice time than rest in a session, potential for fatigue.
- Distributed Practice: Rest time equal to or greater than practice time.
- Constant Practice: Same task, same environment.
- Variable Practice: Different conditions for the same task.
- Random Practice: Varying tasks in random order.
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Blocked Practice: Repeating one task for a block of trials before moving to the next.
- Contextual interference: Interference during practice can enhance learning.
- Whole Training: Practicing the entire task.
- Part Training: Breaking down the task into individual parts for practice.
- Transfer: Learning one task in one environment facilitates performance in another.
- Mental Practice: Imagining the task, useful for enhancing learning when physical practice is not possible.
- Guidance: Physical support during practice.
- Discovery Learning: Trial and error learning.
Motor Learning and Recovery of Function
- Recovery of Function: Regaining lost function after injury or illness.
- Compensation: Developing alternative strategies to perform a task when the preferred method is not available.
Recovery of Function
- Function is the ability to perform a task effectively.
- Skilled action involves complex motor skills and coordination.
- Recovery aims to restore damaged structures or functions.
- Clinical improvements reflect the effectiveness of interventions.
- Compensation involves using alternative strategies to complete tasks.
- Sparing occurs when functions remain despite injury.
Stages of Recovery
- Spontaneous recovery occurs naturally without intervention.
- Forced recovery requires specific interventions targeting neural mechanisms.
Factors Affecting Recovery Function
- Personal and environmental factors influence recovery.
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Age plays a crucial role in recovery.
- Mature areas may recover less effectively.
- Imature areas may allow other areas to take over tasks.
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Injury severity impacts functional loss.
- Speed of injury affects recovery.
- Size of the injury influences the extent of damage.
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Pre-injury factors contribute to recovery potential.
- Exercise, environment enrichment, and nutrition can promote recovery.
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Post-injury factors influence recovery outcomes.
- Medication and rehabilitative treatments are key interventions.
Neural Plasticity
- Plasticity refers to the ability of structures to change.
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Neural plasticity encompasses changes in neuronal connections, including:
- Short-term habituation
- Long-term habituation
- Long-term sensitization
Neural Modifiability and Learning
- Neural modifiability involves changes in synaptic connections due to persistent modifications.
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Learning demonstrates a parallel continuum:
- Short-term changes lead to long-term changes
Cortical Mapping: Motor and Sensory
- Different brain areas map to specific motor and sensory functions.
- Cortical reorganization can occur after injuries like amputation or stroke.
- A window of opportunity exists, during which increased plasticity allows for recovery.
Recovery of Function: Principles of Experience
- Use it or Lose it: Failing to use brain functions can lead to functional deficits.
- Use it and Improve it: Training specific brain functions enhances performance.
- Specificity: The type of training dictates the nature of plasticity.
Principles of Experience – Dependent Plasticity Repetition through Salience
- Repetition matters: Sufficient repetition is crucial for plasticity.
- Intensity matters: Training intensity influences the extent of plasticity.
- Time matters: Different forms of plasticity occur at different times during training.
- Salience matters: Meaningful training experiences are necessary to induce plasticity.
Principles of Experience – Dependent Plasticity Age through Interference
- Age matters: Younger brains exhibit greater plasticity.
- Transference: Training in one area can enhance learning in similar behaviors.
- Interference: Training can interfere with the acquisition of other behaviors.
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of motor control and movement in this quiz. Understand how individual characteristics and environmental factors influence movement, as well as various task classifications like discrete, continuous, closed, and open tasks. Test your knowledge on the intricate relationships involved in motor control.
