Motivation and Personality

• Motivation is an internal force and external factors encouraging workers to act
• Motivation varies among employees; some arrive with it, others do not

Personality and Motivation

• OCEAN (five-factor theory) assesses personality
• Conscientiousness predicts work performance, OCB, and academic success
• Stability correlates with salary and high goal-setting
• Extraversion associates with the frequency of promotions

Self-Esteem and Motivation

• Self-esteem affects how valuable and worthy a person views themselves
• Korman's Consistency Theory states employee motivation aligns with their self-esteem level, indicating a link between self-esteem and performance
• Employees with high self-esteem want to perform well
• Employees with low self-esteem want to perform at lower levels, even when their abilities allow them to achieve more
• Chronic self-esteem is a person's overall feeling about themselves
• Situational self-esteem (self-efficacy) refers to a person's feeling about themselves in a specific situation
• Socially influenced self-esteem is how a person feels based on the expectations of others

Improving Self-Esteem

• Self-esteem can be improved through workshops and outdoor experiential training
• Success-based experiences are founded on the self-fulfilling prophecy principle
• Self-fulfilling prophecy is when individuals perform as they expect to
• People behave consistently with their self-image
• The Galatea Effect is the relationship between self-expectations and performance where high self-expectations relate to increased performance
• Supervisor behavior influences employee self-esteem; manager confidence boosts employee performance
• The Pygmalion Effect occurs when belief in someone's potential leads to actions that make that potential a reality
• The Golem Effect describes how low expectations from oneself or a supervisor lead to decreased performance
• Limited evidence exists that teaching "Pygmalion Leadership Style" can change supervisor treatment and increase employee self-esteem

Intrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation drives work in the absence of external factors
• People perform tasks for enjoyment or challenge

Extrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic motivation comes from external factors like pay or advancement opportunity
• Extrinsically motivated people may not enjoy tasks, but perform well for rewards
• The Work Preference Inventory assesses intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation
• It measures enjoyment and challenge, with compensation and outward orientation

McClelland's Theory of Needs

• The Need for Achievement measures the desire to be successful
• Employees needing achievement are motivated by challenge and control
• Minimal achievement needs are satisfied with jobs that are simple with a high chance of success
• The Need for Affiliation measures the desire to be around others
• Employees needing affiliation are motivated by jobs where they can work with and help others
• The Need for Power measures the desire to control others

Meeting Employee Values and Expectations

• Job Expectations: Discrepancies between expectations and reality could affect motivation; less than promised leads to retaliation
• Realistic Job Previews reduce the problem
• The Job Characteristics Theory determines job satisfaction based on employee needs
• Jobs should be meaningful, provide autonomy, and give performance feedback
• Motivational potential increases with skill variety, task identification, and task significance

Theories on Needs, Values, and Wants

• Needs Theory states that employees are satisfied when jobs meet their needs
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: five hierarchical needs where lower levels must be satisfied first
• Basic Biological Needs: food, shelter, water
• Safety Needs: security, stability, physical safety
• Social Needs: interaction with others
• Ego/Esteem Needs: success and recognition
• Self-actualization Needs: realizing potential
• Evaluation of Maslow’s theory: may have too many levels, some skip levels, no guarantee of progression
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory: three levels of satisfaction (existence, relatedness, growth) with no necessary order
• Existence relates to physiological and safety needs
• Relatedness relates to social needs
• Growth relates to ego and self-actualization needs
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: hygiene factors and motivators affect job satisfaction
• Hygiene Factors (pay, benefits, job security) do not involve job itself, but are similar to Maslow’s first three levels
• Motivators: involve actual tasks, similar to Maslow’s last two levels

Hygiene Factors

• Hygiene factors are necessary, but not sufficient for job satisfaction
• Low hygiene leads to dissatisfaction
• Adequate hygiene leads to neutrality; motivation needs both hygiene and motivators
• High pay without control leads to neither motivation nor unmotivated
• Low pay leads to unmotivated
• Good pay with control leads to motivation

Achievable Goals, Feedback, and Rewards

• Goal-Setting: setting specific goals to improve performance (SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-Bound)
• Feedback: increases effectiveness of goal-setting when positive and informational
• Self-Regulation Theory: employees are motivated when monitoring and adjusting their progress
• Incentives: key to motivating employees
• Operant Conditioning: rewarding good performance and punishing errors

Factors of Incentives

• Timing of the Incentive: denotes schedules of reinforcement
• Contingency of Consequence: clear link between action and result
• Type of Incentive Used
• Premack Principle: using a less boring task to reward completing a very boring task
• Financial Rewards
• Recognition - Using personal attention and approval Travel

Incentive Plans

• Used for individual-based versus group-based incentives
• Individual Incentive Plans Pay for performance (earning-at-risks): based on individual production
• Commission for each unit sold
• Piecework for each unit produced Merit Pay bases incentives on performance appraisal scores
• Group Incentive Plans Profit Sharing (Albert Gallatin, 1794): percentage of profits Gainsharing (Nunn-Bush Shoe Company, 1935): bonus based on improved productivity
• Baseline is set before plan implementation Stock Options: giving employees the right to buy stocks at a set price in the future

Vroomm's Expectancy Theory

• Vroomm's Expectancy Theory: motivation is a product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (Motivation = E * I * V)
• Expectancy: perceived relationship between effort and outcome
• Instrumentality: the belief that performance results in a certain consequence
• Valence: value of the consequence
• Low expectancy leads to low motivation
• Instrumentality: motivation requires behavior results in consequence
• Consequences require conditions to be met
• Employee behavior must be noticed or motivation decreases
• Noticed behavior must be rewarded or motivation decreases

Employee Rewards and Motivation

• For valence, rewards must be valued by employees
• Criticisms
• The components equation
• Adding components works better
• Can't result with 0 is one component is zero
• Theory more predictive when valence and instrumentality measured accurately
• Assumes rational behavior and internal control

Positive Incentives

• Using positive incentives (rewards) vs. negative incentives (punishments)
• Rewards and resources should be fairly distributed
• Equity Theory: job satisfaction relies on perceived fairness
• Satisfaction depends on the comparison to others
• Three components Inputs: personal contributions (time, effort) Outputs: what is received (pay, benefits) Input/Output Ratio: comparison of contribution to reward
• Dissatisfaction motivates efforts to equalize ratios, if lower than that of others

Organizational Justice

• Organization justice is when fair treatment leads to motivation
• Involves fairness of work aspects
• Procedural Justice: fairness of decision-making
• Distributive Justice: fairness of outcome
• Interactional Justice: fairness of communication
• Social Influence Theory suggests that employee motivation is impacted by observation