Motion Types and Biomechanics Concepts

Motion Types

• Linear motion involves movement in a straight line
• Angular motion involves rotation around an axis
• General motion is a combination of both linear and angular motion

Key Biomechanics Concepts

• Force is a push or pull, calculated as F = ma (mass x acceleration)
• Velocity refers to the speed in a given direction which is calculated as displacement divided by time
• Acceleration refers to the change in velocity over time
• Momentum is the product of mass and velocity (p = mass x velocity)
• Impulse is a change in momentum, calculated as force multiplied by time
• Torque describes the force that causes rotation, calculated as force multiplied by momentum

Momentum

• Momentum is the product of an object's mass and velocity
• Momentum describes the quantity of motion in a body
• An object must be moving to possess momentum
• The more momentum an object has, the harder it is to stop
• The conservation of momentum states that in a collision, the total momentum before and after impact remains constant

Summation of Momentum (Force Summation)

• This refers to the sequential and coordinated movement of body parts to produce maximal force or velocity

Key Principles of Summation of Momentum

• Large muscles (e.g., thighs, trunk) are activated first
• Smaller, faster muscles (e.g., arms, wrist) follow the activation of larger muscles
• Momentum is built and transferred effectively through this activation sequence
• Each body part must be stable to allow the next segment to build upon it
• A stable base allows for efficient energy transfer
• Using more body parts allows force to be applied over a longer time
• More time generates greater momentum
• Follow through ensures no premature deceleration of the final segment, e.g., hand or foot
• Follow through allows safe and complete transfer of force
• All body movements should be directed toward the intended target or goal

Mnemonic

• "BEST" is a mnemonic to remember the key principles for summation of momentum, Body parts, Esequence, Stabilisation, Timing

Application of Summation of Momentum

• Power activities depend on using more segments in a sequential manner, for example, a golf drive or baseball pitch
• Accuracy activities depend on using fewer segments, often simultaneously such as a netball shot

Newton's Laws of Motion

• First Law (Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
• First Law Example: A soccer ball will stay still unless kicked
• Second Law (Acceleration): Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
• Second Law Example: A heavier rugby player requires more force to accelerate than a lighter one.
• Third Law (Action-Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Third Law Example: Jumping off the ground pushes down, and the ground pushes back

Stages of Learning

• Cognitive Stage (Beginner): Characterized by a high number of errors
• The Cognitive Stage Requires frequent feedback
• The Cognitive Stage Requires focus on understanding the skill.
• The Cognitive Stage Requires simple drills with clear instructions
• Associative Stage (Intermediate): Characterized by fewer errors and better coordination
• The Associative Stage Requires refinement of technique
• The Associative Stage requires more self-correction
• The Associative Stage Requires less frequent feedback, more practice
• Autonomous Stage (Advanced): Automatic skill execution with little conscious thought
• The Autonomous Stage Requires high-level decision-making
• The Autonomous Stage Requires feedback needed for fine-tuning
• The Autonomous Stage Requires high-level practice with real-game scenarios.

Coaching Methods

• Constraint-Based Coaching: Learners acquire skills by adapting to task, individual, and environmental constraints
• Constraint-Based Coaching: Encourages real-game adaptability
• Constraint-Based Coaching: Involves individual, environmental and task contraints

Key Constraints

• Individual constraints: Height, weight, motivation, fitness, etc.
• Environmental constraints: Climate, playing surface, social norms
• Task constraints: Rules, equipment, playing space

Approaches to Coaching

• Direct Coaching uses explicit instruction and linear progression, following a one-size-fits-all approach
• Constraint-Based Coaching uses guided discovery and non-linear learning, with adaptation and problem-solving

Effective Practice

• Part Practice involves breaking down complex skills into smaller components, like a tennis serve
• Whole Practice involves practicing the entire skill at once, like running or cycling

Practice Variability

• Blocked Practice (Low variability) involves repeating the same skill over and over in isolation
• Blocked Practice is good for beginners and is typified by shooting 50 basketball free throws
• Random Practice (High variability) involves practicing different skills in an unpredictable sequence/order
• Random Practice enhances skill transfer to real games

Practice Distribution

• Massed Practice (Fewer breaks) features fewer but longer training sessions
• Massed Practice presents a risk of fatigue but good for elite athletes
• Distributed Practice (Frequent breaks) features shorter training sessions with more rest, more frequently
• Distributed Practice is better for beginners or complex skills, with improved skill retention

Types of Feedback

• Intrinsic Feedback (self-assessed) comes from the athlete’s own senses
• An example of Intrinsic Feedback, is a gymnast feeling their balance
• Extrinsic Feedback (Augmented Feedback/External) uses knowledge of performance to focus on technique and skill performance
• Knowledge of Results uses outcome-based feedback, such as a coach telling a sprinter their time or correcting their starting position

Frequency of Feedback

• Frequency of Feedback refers to how often a coach provides augmented (external) feedback to a learner
• Regular feedback is important, especially in early learning stages
• More frequent feedback is needed in the cognitive stage (beginners)
• Less frequent feedback is recommended as learners become more skilled (associative/autonomous stages)
• Too much feedback can overload beginners with information
• Too much feedback can create dependence in experienced performers, hindering independent skill correction
• Lower frequency feedback might reduce performance during training but improves learning transfer to game situations

Types of Feedback Frequency:

• Summary Feedback is a coach providing feedback after several attempts
• Summary Feedback helps prioritize important issues and avoid overwhelming the learner
• Performer-Regulated Feedback occurs when feedback is requested by the athlete
• Performer-Regulated Feedback is best for experienced performers who can identify when they need input
• Coach-Regulated Feedback occurs when a coach determines when and how often to give feedback
• Coach-Regulated Feedback is best for novice learners who require guidance and correction

Psychology

• Social factors: Family, peers, role models impacts an athlete
• Cultural factors impacting an athlete: Traditions, access to facilities, socioeconomic status
• Gender & ethnicity impacts an athlete by influencing participation levels in different sports

Sports Psychology

• Sports Psychology definition: The study of how the human mind influences athletic performance, training, and physical activity
• Sports Psychology focuses on thoughts, emotions, and behaviors during performance
• Sports Psychology aims to develop mental toughness (focus, resilience, pressure handling, persistence)

Phases of Psychological Skills Training (PST)

• Education Phase: Athletes become aware of psychological skills and their benefits
• Acquisition Phase: Athletes learn when, why, and how to apply specific mental skills, personalized for different needs (e.g., anxiety, errors)
• Practice Phase: Regular application of skills until automatic use in performance

Core Psychological Skills for Optimal Performance

• Confidence: Belief in one’s ability to succeed
• Confidence is Influenced by self-efficacy (confidence in specific situations)
• Optimal confidence boosts performance; too little or too much negatively impacts it

Strategies to Build Confidence

• Use previous successful experiences and acting confidently (body language)
• Use positive self-talk, team support, practicing specific scenarios, positive feedback, visualization, and pre-performance routines

Motivation

• Motivation drives initiation, intensity, and persistence of behavior
• Motivation is key to achieving goals and long-term success
• Intrinsic motivation is personal enjoyment, self-challenge, love for the sport, and is more powerful and long-lasting
• Extrinsic motivation includes external rewards (money, fame, trophies) and give good short-term boosts

Coaching Tips for Motivation

• Set SMARTER goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound, Evaluated, Reviewed)

SMARTER goals

• Specific goals clearly define what you want to achieve and avoids vague goals.
• An example of a Specific goal: “Improve my 100m sprint time by 0.5 seconds.”
• Measurable goals ensures progress can be tracked.
• An example of a Measurable goal is: “Track sprint times weekly.”
• Achievable goals sets a goal that is challenging but possible based on your current ability
• Realistic goals ensures the goal fits within your lifestyle, time, and resources
• Time-based goals sets a deadline or timeframe
• An example of a Time-based goal: “Achieve this within 6 weeks.”
• Evaluated goals requires regularly reviewing progress to see what’s working and what’s not
• Reviewed goals reflect on the goal after completion, whether it was effective and what can be improved next time

Coaching approaches

• Make players feel valued
• Recognize effort, not just outcomes
• Tailor motivation based on the situation (e.g., finals vs training).

Arousal

• The level of physical and mental alertness before/during performance
• The Inverted-U Hypothesis relates to Low arousal causing underperformance (distracted, bored) where as Optimal arousal puts someone "in the zone"
• Over-arousal causes poor decision-making and tunnel vision

Decreasing Arousal Strategies

• Use Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), controlled breathing, meditation and mindfulness, biofeedback, and Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)

Increasing Arousal Strategies

• Use energizing imagery, positive self-talk, pump-up music, pre-game warm-ups

Concentration

• Concentration is the ability to maintain attention and block out distractions

Improving Concentration

• Improve concentration through controlled breathing to calm the mind, or visualization of task execution
• Improve concentration through cue words and positive self-talk (e.g., “Focus”, “Follow through”) and pre-performance routines to lock in focus

Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)

• SIT prepares athletes to handle stress and pressure by exposing them to stress in a controlled way, it is similar to how a vaccine "inoculates" against disease
• SIT helps athletes build immunity to stress and anxiety, developing coping mechanisms for high-pressure situations (e.g., competition, big games)

Stages of SIT

• Conceptualisation Stage: Athletes identify sources of stress and recognize their thought patterns (positive vs negative) where they build self-awareness of how thoughts influence feelings and behaviors
• Rehearsal Stage: Athletes learn and practice coping strategies, such as positive self-talk, mental imagery, controlled breathing and relaxation techniques
• Application Stage: Athletes apply coping strategies first in low-stress scenarios (e.g., practice) and gradually increase to high-stress conditions (e.g., simulations, real games)

Projectile Motion

• Projectile motion refers to the curved path an object follows when it is thrown, kicked, or launched into the air
• A projectile is any object launched into the air affected only by gravity and air resistance (air resistance is often ignored)
• The three main factors that affect projectile motion are speed of release, angle of release and height of release

Factors that Affect Projectile Motion

• Speed of Release is the most important factor in determining how far a projectile travels (its range)
• Greater speed equals more distance and height
• Speed determines how much force the object has to overcome gravity and air resistance.

Angle of Release

• Angle of Release affects the shape of the projectile’s trajectory (flight path).
• Common angles and their effects: 45° for ideal max horizontal distance, > 45° for higher, shorter trajectory, and < 45° for flatter, shorter trajectory

Height of Release

• Height of Release refers to the height the object is released from compared to where it lands
• Higher release point equals longer flight time, which leads to more distance (if other factors are constant)
• The optimal angle for max distance is less than 45° if release height is greater than landing height

Static Equilibrium

• Static Equilibrium means an Object is at rest

Dynamic Equilibrium

• Dynamic Equilibrium means an object is moving but remains balanced

Factors Affecting Stability

• Centre of Gravity: A lower centre of gravity is more stable
• Base of Support: A wider base of support is more stable
• Line of Gravity: The line of gravity needs to fall within the base of support

Levers

• First-Class Lever (Axis in the middle): Example - Neck extension (looking up)
• Second-Class Lever (Resistance in the middle): Example - Calf raise (axis = ball of foot, resistance = body weight)
• Third-Class Lever (Force in the middle): Example - Bicep curl (axis = elbow, force = biceps, resistance = weight in hand)