Moral Agency and Cultural Contexts

Study Notes

The human individual is tasked with considering what is right and choosing to act accordingly.
"Know thyself" is a significant concept in philosophical thought, emphasizing self-awareness.
Filipino philosopher Ramon C. Reyes' essay "Man and Historical Action" details four factors influencing an individual: physical events, interpersonal relationships, social contexts (including culture), and historical events.
Individuals are products of forces beyond their control, including past and present circumstances, and characteristics inherited from their families.
Society and culture heavily influence an individual's sense of self and values.
One's culture dictates societal norms that shape perception of right and wrong.
"When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is a common philosophical stance that emphasizes cultural relativism in decision-making.
Cultural relativism holds that there is no objective truth in morality; each culture has its own standard of right and wrong.
James Rachels provides a critique of cultural relativism, arguing it confuses descriptive statements of fact with normative claims and that cultures can be morally judged.

Culture can influence interpretations of morality.
One's culture shapes societal and personal connections and responsibilities.
A person is accountable to the norms of their culture.
Cultural customs and norms can reflect the beliefs and practices of a particular civilization.
Rachels' counter argument is that just because people believe something, it doesn't make it true.
Ethics is not determined by one’s society or culture.
One must use reason when faced with ethical predicaments.
A key concept is that moral norms can change through time.

There's a difference between child-like reasoning and mature moral decision-making.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development outlines six stages, with three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Preconventional reasoning is focused on self-interest, avoiding punishment or seeking reward.
Conventional reasoning prioritizes societal expectations and rules to gain approval.
Postconventional reasoning involves personally determined universal ethical principles.
The moral agent is the center of moral deliberation.

Moral problems require rational thought.
Identifying stakeholders and considering their perspectives is essential for ethical decision-making.
Fact-checking and verifying information are critical to avoid biases or misinformation.
Moral dilemmas require consideration of competing values.
Ethical choices may hinge on the balance of competing interests.

Environmental ethics, concerning our responsibility towards non-human entities, is a relatively new field.
Traditionally, ethics emphasized interpersonal relationships more.
Utilitarianism extends the concept of pleasure/pain to include animals, suggesting our actions must consider their well-being.
Natural law theory suggests obligations towards non-human beings by appreciating the value of all creation.