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What percentage of people with this disorder are considered chronic with no signs of permanent improvement?
What percentage of people with this disorder are considered chronic with no signs of permanent improvement?
Which group has the highest heritability estimate for major depressive disorder (MDD)?
Which group has the highest heritability estimate for major depressive disorder (MDD)?
What type of medication was originally developed to address a condition but was later found to deplete serotonin levels in the brain?
What type of medication was originally developed to address a condition but was later found to deplete serotonin levels in the brain?
According to the monoamine hypothesis, which neurotransmitters are suggested to be at low levels in individuals with depression?
According to the monoamine hypothesis, which neurotransmitters are suggested to be at low levels in individuals with depression?
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Which brain region is noted to have reduced activity in individuals with depression, potentially leading to inappropriate emotional responses?
Which brain region is noted to have reduced activity in individuals with depression, potentially leading to inappropriate emotional responses?
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What is one theory for the development of depression related to environmental factors?
What is one theory for the development of depression related to environmental factors?
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What brain structures are found to be hyperactive in individuals with depression and are involved in managing emotions?
What brain structures are found to be hyperactive in individuals with depression and are involved in managing emotions?
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What risk percentage of developing major depressive disorder is associated with 1st degree relatives?
What risk percentage of developing major depressive disorder is associated with 1st degree relatives?
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What type of factors do depressed individuals attribute negative events to, according to causal attribution theory?
What type of factors do depressed individuals attribute negative events to, according to causal attribution theory?
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What is the minimum number of symptoms required to qualify for a manic or hypomanic episode with mixed features?
What is the minimum number of symptoms required to qualify for a manic or hypomanic episode with mixed features?
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Which of the following best describes rumination in the context of depression?
Which of the following best describes rumination in the context of depression?
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Which age at first episode suggests substance use or another general medical condition in bipolar disorder?
Which age at first episode suggests substance use or another general medical condition in bipolar disorder?
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What duration is required for a manic episode to be classified within the DSM-5?
What duration is required for a manic episode to be classified within the DSM-5?
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What is the estimated heritability of bipolar disorder?
What is the estimated heritability of bipolar disorder?
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Which symptom is NOT associated with manic episodes as defined by DSM-5 criteria?
Which symptom is NOT associated with manic episodes as defined by DSM-5 criteria?
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What percentage of individuals with bipolar disorder commit suicide?
What percentage of individuals with bipolar disorder commit suicide?
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What is a characteristic of hypomanic episodes compared to manic episodes?
What is a characteristic of hypomanic episodes compared to manic episodes?
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Which of the following statements about the course of illness in bipolar disorder is true?
Which of the following statements about the course of illness in bipolar disorder is true?
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What outcome is rumination known to predict regarding therapy effectiveness?
What outcome is rumination known to predict regarding therapy effectiveness?
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What is the lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder type 2?
What is the lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder type 2?
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Which of the following factors is NOT linked to the predictions of anxiety related to rumination?
Which of the following factors is NOT linked to the predictions of anxiety related to rumination?
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What observed trend exists regarding the rates of suicide attempts in bipolar disorder?
What observed trend exists regarding the rates of suicide attempts in bipolar disorder?
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What does the term 'mixed state' refer to in the context of mood disorders?
What does the term 'mixed state' refer to in the context of mood disorders?
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What percentage of bipolar disorder patients have made at least one suicide attempt?
What percentage of bipolar disorder patients have made at least one suicide attempt?
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What is the minimum duration for a major depressive episode to be considered for the diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder?
What is the minimum duration for a major depressive episode to be considered for the diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder?
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Which of the following symptoms is NOT a characteristic of Major Depressive Disorder?
Which of the following symptoms is NOT a characteristic of Major Depressive Disorder?
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What defines the term 'recurrence' in the context of mood disorders?
What defines the term 'recurrence' in the context of mood disorders?
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In Persistent Depressive Disorder, how long must a person experience a depressed mood to meet the diagnostic criteria?
In Persistent Depressive Disorder, how long must a person experience a depressed mood to meet the diagnostic criteria?
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What is the primary difference between bipolar disorders and unipolar disorders?
What is the primary difference between bipolar disorders and unipolar disorders?
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What percentage of individuals recovering from Major Depressive Disorder remain symptomatic after 6 years?
What percentage of individuals recovering from Major Depressive Disorder remain symptomatic after 6 years?
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Which of the following factors is NOT involved in diagnosing Major Depressive Disorder?
Which of the following factors is NOT involved in diagnosing Major Depressive Disorder?
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Which type of psychosis is characterized by visual, tactile, or olfactory experiences that align with depressive symptoms?
Which type of psychosis is characterized by visual, tactile, or olfactory experiences that align with depressive symptoms?
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How does negative reinforcement play a role in maintaining depression?
How does negative reinforcement play a role in maintaining depression?
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What is a key component of Beck's cognitive theory of depression?
What is a key component of Beck's cognitive theory of depression?
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What is implied by the concept of the negative triad in cognitive theories of depression?
What is implied by the concept of the negative triad in cognitive theories of depression?
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Which theory suggests that experiencing unavoidable negative life events can lead to depression?
Which theory suggests that experiencing unavoidable negative life events can lead to depression?
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How do early experiences relate to the development of negative schemas in individuals?
How do early experiences relate to the development of negative schemas in individuals?
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What does Beck identify as a consequence of negative automatic thoughts?
What does Beck identify as a consequence of negative automatic thoughts?
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Which of the following best describes the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies in depression?
Which of the following best describes the impact of self-fulfilling prophecies in depression?
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What is a common consequence of having negative schemas activated during stressful situations?
What is a common consequence of having negative schemas activated during stressful situations?
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What role does increased dopamine play in individuals with bipolar disorder?
What role does increased dopamine play in individuals with bipolar disorder?
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Which area of the brain is reported to be underactive during cognitive and emotional processing in manic states of bipolar disorder?
Which area of the brain is reported to be underactive during cognitive and emotional processing in manic states of bipolar disorder?
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What is a common observation regarding cytokines in people with bipolar disorder?
What is a common observation regarding cytokines in people with bipolar disorder?
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What percentage of people does lithium carbonate typically fail to remit in treating bipolar disorder?
What percentage of people does lithium carbonate typically fail to remit in treating bipolar disorder?
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Which treatment option is noted to require monitoring due to its use of illegal drugs?
Which treatment option is noted to require monitoring due to its use of illegal drugs?
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What impact does the gastrointestinal system have on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in bipolar disorder?
What impact does the gastrointestinal system have on the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in bipolar disorder?
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What is a common side effect of lithium carbonate treatment in bipolar disorder?
What is a common side effect of lithium carbonate treatment in bipolar disorder?
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During electroconvulsive therapy, how often are sessions typically administered?
During electroconvulsive therapy, how often are sessions typically administered?
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Study Notes
Mood Disorders
- Bipolar disorders involve both depression and mania.
- Unipolar disorders are characterized only by depression.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
- Diagnosis requires a major depressive episode lasting at least 2 weeks.
- Five or more symptoms are necessary (depressed mood or diminished interest in activities, significant weight changes, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, thoughts of death).
- Symptoms cannot be attributed to grief or other medical conditions.
- Psychosis (hallucinations or delusions) can occur but is syntonic with the depression.
Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)
- Depressed mood most of the day for at least 2 years.
- Two or more of the following symptoms are needed: poor appetite/overeating, sleep disturbances, fatigue, poor self-esteem, trouble concentrating, and hopelessness.
Lifetime Prevalence
- Males: 5-12%
- Females: 10-25%
Bipolar Disorders
- Bipolar I Disorder: Characterized by manic and major depressive episodes.
- Bipolar II Disorder: Characterized by hypomanic and major depressive episodes.
Remission, Relapse, Recurrence
- Remission is the return to baseline.
- Relapse is recurrence within 6-9 months of remission.
- Recurrence refers to a new episode after this period.
Biological Theories
- Heritability is estimated to be around 40%.
- Twin concordance studies show a higher risk to those who have a relative who suffers from MDD.
- Genetic and environmental factors interact, such as childhood experiences and genetic vulnerabilities.
Behavioral Theories
- Depression may stem from a lack of positive reinforcement and rewarding experiences.
Cognitive Theories
- Negative schemas (beliefs) and automatic thoughts contribute to the development of depression.
- Bias in selecting, processing, and evaluating events occurs.
Causal Attribution Theory
- People with depression often attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors.
Rumination
- Repetitive thinking focused on the causes, meanings, experiences, and consequences of events is a characteristic of depression.
Other Key Factors
- Suicide: A significant concern in BD, often during depressive states.
- Chronicity: Some individuals experience chronic or enduring episodes. Early-onset BD (in childhood/adolescence) is associated with poorer prognosis.
- Mood Episodes: Episodes of both mania and depression (in mixed state)
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