Mitochondria & Chloroplasts: Energy Organelles

• Cells obtain energy from energy-producing organelles, which include mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• Both hold their own genetic data that grants cells a level of independence.

Mitochondrial Dynamics

• Mitochondria dynamically fuse, divide, and form interchanging tubular networks in eukaryotic cells.

Mitochondria: Energy Factories

• Mitochondria are oblong organelles with a dual membrane: a smooth external layer and a folded internal layer.
• Ribosomes, enzymes, and genetic materials form up the mitochondrial matrix that lies inside.
• The main function of mitochondria is to produce energy for eukaryotic cells by performing cellular repiration.
• Mitochondria are in all eukaryotic cells.

Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis Location

• Chloroplasts are ellipsoid organelles with a double membrane and a stack of membrane sacs known as thylakoids.
• Chlorophyll is a pigment in thylakoid layers that gives them the color green.
• Photosynthesis is only present in autotrophic organisms, which turns inorganic molecules into organic ones using light energy.

Cellular Movement

• Cilia and flagella are external eukaryotic cell appendages that aid with movement.
• Eukaryotic cells move through cilia, flagella or by changes in the viscosity of the cytoplasm.

Via Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia and flagella are mobile organelles composed of cytoskeleton protein fibers and act as external appendages.
• Centrioles are structures that aid in coordinated cilia and flagella movement, and also aid in chromosome segregation during cellular division.

Cytoplasm Viscosity Changes

• Cytoskeleton proteins form temporary pseudopodia, which are extensions that modify cell shape as viscosity changes.
• Certain materials can be surrounded and captured with pseudopodia (microbes and food), through phagocytosis.

Nucleus

• There is genetic material in the nucleus.
• The central region of cells, where the nuclear distribution exists, is mainly in secretor and vegetal cells.
• Cells are controlled by the nucleus.
• Nuclear structure changes depending on the state of the cell.
• Interface nucleus happens when cells don't divide.
• Division nucleus happens whe cells do divide.

Interphase Nucleus

• Pores allow an exchange of substances with the cytoplasm, as the interphase nucleus has a dual membrane containing nucleoplasm which resembles cytoplasm.
• The nucleolus, a spherical structure composed of proteins and RNA, is for producing proteins and synthesizing ribosomes.
• Chromatin is a DNA substance bound histone.

Dividing Nucleus

• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes with a species-specific structure when cell division starts.

Chromatin and Chromosomes

• Genetic material of the interphase nucleus forms from chromatin of DNA and proteins and the most prevalent are histones.
• The function of the proteins is to arrange and package the genetic material within the nucleus,
• Condensation of chromatin happens when the nucleus is actively replicating.
• A chromosome is constituted of two chromatin filaments called chromatids bound by a centromere.

Chromosomes

• A chromosome is composed of two identical chromatid which copies of the same genetic data
• The number of chromosomes relies upon the species of origin and are expressed as N.
• 2N is what cells of the body are (not the reproductive cells).
• Telomeres are located at the chromosome's extremities and conserve the genetic material protecting from chromosome degradation.

Animal and Plant Cells

• Both animal and plant cells share the same components.
• Cytoplasmatic organelles found in a majority of all eukaryote cells.
• The cell cycle has cells growing and dividing to give rise to new cells through cell growth and division.
• A cell passes through interphase and mitosis during its life cycle to grow and divide.
• A cell grows during interphase, duplicates chromosomes, and synthesizes organelles for cell division.
• The stages of interphase are G1, G0, S, and G2.
• Cells stop growing and split into two daughter cells during mitosis, with corresponding quantity of chromosomes,
• Mitosis is when the daughter cells go through interphase.

Cycle of Cell Division

• Phase M (mitosis) is the duplication stage of cells.
• The condensing of chromosomes, reformation of a nuclear membrane, a cytokinesis all go into producing daughter cells.
• Phase G0 occurs near the end of Phase G1, with cells entering an inactive stage.
• Phase G1 occurs after cell division to prepare for DNA replication.
• Phase S is the synthesizing stage where the cell synthesizes and duplicates DNA.
• Phase G2 prepares genetic material for separation.

Cellular Division

• Cellular division is for replenishing tissue in pluricellular organisms and creating new individuals in unicellular organisms.
• Mitosis: Nuclear Division
• Cellular daughter genetics that are the exact match with the initial cells and with one another are crucial (excluding sexual cells).
• This accurate transmission of genetics means the material is in the most crucial process, the division, and will become mitosis, that duplicated data goes to each daughter.
• Number of chromosomes are shared in both daughter and original cells of mitosis.
• Mitosis goes in four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Four Fundamental Processes

• Prophase, which has chromatin fibers, enfold in a spiral fashion to make chromosomes.
• Nucleolus disappears as protein fibers appear between both cellular poles to form the achromatic spindle.
• Chromosomes get freed into the cytoplasm because the first stage ceases, with outer wall and chromosomes freed into the cytoplasm.
• Metaphase, is where centromeres unite the chromosomes with achromatic fusal fibers.
• Equatorial plates form near the middle plane of cells.
• Towards the cell poles sit sister chromatids of chromosomes.
• The fibers or the achromatic fuselage break in half through the equator during Anaphase.
• The split happens from centrometers of chromosomes that bonded that fiber and pulls halves there.
• Chromosomes are moved due to contractile action.
• Telophase, where migration of chromatids ends, the remnants of achromatic fuselage disappear.
• The membrane around each group form nuclei.
• Chromosomes have progressive disassociation.
• Nucleolus appears during Telophase.
• Cytokinesis splits the cytoplasm and divides cell organelles.
• Cytokinesis happens in two different ways: Strengthing causes separation of cytoplasm in animal cells, and separation wall formation causes separation to cytoplasm in vegetal cells.

Meiosis: Forming Gametes

• Through meiosis, cells can have half of the genetic materials (versus equal amounts).
• Sex cells or gametes are formed here.
• Zygotes result from gamete fusion during fertilization, then mitotic events create the full organism.
• Each progenitor shares half of the chromosomes of the zygote.

Maintain Chromosome Number

• To sustain the numbers and genetics unique to a species, there needs to be half of all chromosomes in the gametes.
• Special nuclear dividing called meiosis helps the genetic material go down by half into four daughter cells out from start cells.
• This happens in two dividing phases.

First Meiotic Division

• Reductional is also how the first division is known due to halving chromosomes (phases are shared here with mitosis with noteworthy differences).
• Prophase I: Chromosomes paired with homologous pairs and exchange genetics in recombination between.
• Metaphase 1: Connect pairs of chromosomes and not chromosomes in the threads of the fusible achromatic fibers.
• Anaphase 1: Each pole has a single chromosome.
• Reconstruction occurs by nuclei where cells begin to undergo cytokinesis in Telophase 1.
• Two daughter nuclei result from end action of the process that has a full n chromosome inside each.
• Second Meiotic Division
• Second stage cromosomas divide and daughter cells receive genes.
• By that all happens and four daughters result, but possess half amount from what start cells possess.

Inherited Genetic Traits

• There is change through recombining and genetic materials from progenitors during meiosis.

Analogies and Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

• Chromosomes condenses and turns into another chromosome that is sent toward two poles for new genetic materials, that then unwinds and new cores create resulting new cell production.
• Major differences however reside in the production.
• Mitosis has a diplomatic marrow but divides twice during a diploic state but the genetic makeup does not change resulting in normal cells.
• Analzying face shows differences between mitosis and meiosis.

Prophase

• Prophase 1 starts and lasts for 1 that intermixes materials.

Anaphase

• Chromatids form to separates and move to different areas where pole is in division which also separate homologous chromosomes.
• Telophase produces nucleuses and makes copies with same genes where it contains half the cells from its parents.

Biological Significance

• Goal of meiosis to give new traits vs copying.
• Cell produces with both that prevents error in genetics, a reproduction needs to meet a set of cell production rules to keep everything properly inline with the traits it needs.
• Important for genetics/cells and can change through damage of damage or grow with like cells with this trait.