Middle East: Culture, Islam & Arabic Identity

• The British coined the term "Middle East" to designate a transit point between East and West, inhabited by diverse cultures coexisting.
• It is characterized by three primary languages: Arabic, Persian, and Turkish.
• The region is further defined by diverse ethnic and religious identities.

Arabic Ethnic Identity

• The Arabic ethnic identity gained prominence during the 7th century, the era of the "Kiddushin."
• Arabic identity unites individuals, binding their fates together as one.

Emergence of Islam

• The Prophet Muhammad's revelation sparks a social, economic, and political revolution by introducing a new faith rooted in five fundamental precepts.
• Muhammad was a trailblazing revolutionary who demonstrated early proficiency in commerce, leading to marriage to a wealthy woman.
• His first wife recognized the divine revelation within him.

Five Basic Pillars (Mitzvot Yesod)

• Shahada: Proclaims that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.

• Salat: Prayer, performed five times daily, serves as a form of meditation, collectively reciting texts.

• Zakat: Almsgiving, seen as a membership fee.

• Sawm: Fasting during Ramadan.

• Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca, is achievable if physically and financially able

• Sunnah: Provides a contextual illustration of Prophet Muhammad’s way of life.

• The Quran serves as the prayer book for Muslims.

Muhammad's Creation of a Nation-State

• In 622, Prophet Muhammad leaves Mecca for Yathrib, which becomes known as Medina, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

• He flees due to life-threatening conditions caused by early converts, known as "Al-Muhajirun."

• Yathrib consisted of idolatrous tribes in constant conflict, seeking Muhammad as an arbitrator.

• Muhammad effectively resolved internal disputes and converted them, renaming the city to "Medina."

• Hostilities arose between Mecca and Medina, with people converting to Islam, known as Al-Ansar.

• The Islamic state comprised Al-Muhajirun and Al-Ansar.

• In 628, Muhammad sought to consolidate his forces, leading to a truce called "Al-Hudaibiyah."

• Muhammad centralized authority, including military command, and conquered Mecca.

• He cleansed the city of idols, converting it to monotheism.

• Because the truce was formed with idol worshipers, who, according to Islamic doctrine, faced death, the agreement was violated.

• From an Islamic perspective, agreements with Christians or Jews are acceptable.

• The truce was a strategic move for Muhammad to consolidate power.

• Muhammad returned to Medina and died in 632, where he was buried.

• Medina is considered the second most important city.

Crisis in Islam

• Many joined the community for political rather than religious reasons, resulting in tribes abandoning Islam.

• This period is known as the "War of the Apostates," where tribes reverted idolatry, considered a severe crime.

• Abu Bakr symbolized governance, Umar served as a renowned commander, and Uthman ibn Affan, from the Umayyad dynasty, moved the caliphate from Mecca to Damascus.

• Ali ibn Abu Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, became the source of Shia Islam.

• The Sunni-Shia divide stems from Ali’s supporters asserting his rightful claim to be the first caliph.

• Ali was not appointed due to political reasons by founding council, the elite caliphate.

• Ali was deemed worthy of mourning, and the council chose Abu Bakr. Ali relinquished the caliphate and assumed power during sensitive times. Following Uthman’s assassination, supporters who did not recognize him relocated to Damascus.

• Muawiyah, a member of the Umayyad clan of Mecca, initiated a struggle against Ali due to the killing of Uthman.

• Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite named Ibn Muljam; Muawiyah gained power.

• Muawiyah challenged Ali’s legitimacy, leading to civil conflict, causing the loss of his military command.

• Following Ali’s assassination, supporters sought vengeance, urging his son Hussein to lead.

• Hussein was captured by Muawiyah’s forces, his head severed and taken to Damascus.

• Shiites believe in 12 Imams, descendants of Ali and Fatima.

• The 12th Imam disappeared and will herald judgement day.

Western Infiltration into the Middle East

• Napoleon’s invasion in 1798 signifies Europe as the center, influencing cultures.
• Napoleon’s invasion exposed the Middle East to progress.
• During the 16th-17th centuries, Europe had federal governments, while the Middle East had Islamic rule.

Enlightenment in Europe

• The elite were literate and military capable.
• The elite comprised men of sword and book.
• In Europe of the 1700s, kings and nobles became less powerful as commoners became more powerful
• Locke argued that individuals possess innate rights, challenging the divine right of kings and asserting the people's sovereignty.

The Enlightenment Thinkers:

• Montesquieu advocated separation of powers.

• Voltaire critiqued religious institutions and advocated for democracy, urging people to change their lives by learning from predecessors.

• Napoleon's arrival in 1798 marked a pivotal moment, stimulating Western interest in regions beyond Europe.

• The Industrial Revolution started in Britain, cultivated a merchant layer, generated migration and technological and economical disparities worldwide.

• Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt was a war strategy against Britain, targeting its important asset, India. He also planned to use the land’s riches for resources.

• Napoleon sought recognition from liberated from British rule during the French Revolution. He proved his military dominance over the Mamluks, but during shipping to Egypt, the British army pursued him.

• Napoleon aimed to make Egypt a permanent base and win over the people by appearing supportive of them against the British so the inhabitants viewed as a foreign power.

• Islamic scholars resisted the printing press.

• Napoleon tried to gain trust by using hot air balloons, as well as showing force will be used by military.

• Napoleon brought scientists and artists to assist in political control.

• Failed naval invasion of Acre (Akko) in 1799.

• A committee convened in Vienna in 1814-1815 to restore peace, initiating diplomatic resolution.

Revival of Islamic Thought and the Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman realized they had technological inadequacies

• The main issue was tax collection, as accumulating holdings diminished the ability to levy taxes.

• Military officials gained control, leading to political influence, tax reduction and budget challenges.

• Sultan Mahmud II worked to resolve the tax issues

• The Young Ottomans aimed to diminish foreign effect, and used old principles.

• The Young Ottomans sought to delay foreign influence and apply new principles within the religious framework, advocating for constitutional reform based on the Islamic system.

• Their goal was not to establish an Ottoman Republic but modernize Islam to enable people to exercise their rights.

• 1876-1878, political gains were achieved, with figures like Kemal promoting freedom.

• The Sultan did not want a parliament, the Turkish President worked in secret, and the empire loved the railroad

Committee of Union and Progress

• Abdul Hamid II understood that that reform was needed, and that Young Ottomans would be good.

• In 1876, he established Parliament, but in 1878, he abolished the constitution and shut it down.

• He also loved paving railroads, because he had to lower the religious institution resistance.

• He used railroads to help citizens do the Hajj.

• The Sultan connected new time and old time together

• Sykes-Picot and Edith San Remo

• The Young Turk Revolution in 1908 called for the restoration of the constitution and forcefully ousted the Sultan, and the union spoke Turkish The caliphate weakened and new ideas led to people started coming together

• In World War 1, the main result was the end of multiculturalism-Ottoman empire.

• The British and French try seizing the area after collapse, who in war try to manage diplomacy

• The Ottoman Empire's alignment with Germany made it an enemy of Great Britain, which sought to dismantle the empire, and establish the Hashemite family, leading to the Arab Revolt

• The important thing to the British was the transfer of goods through the Red Sea

• There was Arab revolt

• The Hashemite family received responsibility for protecting holy sites because family descends from the prophet muhammad.

• McMahon-Hussein Correspondence in which the British support the establishment of an independent Arab Caliphate in exchange the Arabs would revolt against Turkey and join the British in defeating the Ottomans.

• Britain enlisted the Zionist movement, including Nili, the Balfour document.

• Sykes-Picot Agreement: between French, British, and Russia to decide the land

• During Russia's red revolution they left the agreement because they are communists.

• The League of Nations announced a mandate that allows Britain to occupy territory, but that its goal is to prepare the nation.

• San Remo agreement set the borders of the Middle East in 1919 where the countries decided to share their decisions.

• Pan-Arabism emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries during WW1 that means All the Arab citizens had to have frame work and be based on Arabic ways

• Countries that did not work that out include Palestine.

• In 4/1920- countries were Britain, France, and Italy.

• Britain took over present Israel, Jordan, Iraq,

• French had power to Syria and Lebanon

• Iraqi state was half Iran and iraqi 1992-Abdella got Jordan

• The Arab society has lots of issue 1- Sunni 2- Shia 3- Kurdish

Egypt became free in 1922 after world war 1, but had to give Britain power for security Lebanon was Christian while Syria was not Because of the British, Palestine slowly started moving toward an end.