Middle Childhood Development Quiz
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Middle Childhood Development Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What contributes to resolving Industry vs. Inferiority positively, according to Erikson's theory?

  • Avoiding negative responses from family, teachers, and peers
  • Experiences that lead to the development of a sense of competence (correct)
  • Being better than peers in specific skills and tasks
  • Receiving praise and rewards from family and teachers

    • What is a key aspect of self-concept refinement during middle childhood?

  • Organizing observations of behaviors and internal states into general dispositions (correct)
  • Avoiding social comparisons with others
  • Emulating the behaviors of admired peers
  • Seeking approval and validation from authority figures

    • How do children's cognitive development and feedback from others affect the changing structure of their self-concept?

  • Lead to a fixed and unchanging self-concept
  • Cause a detachment from social comparisons
  • Combine typical experiences and behaviors into stable psychological dispositions (correct)
  • Prevent the incorporation of feedback into self-perception

    • What is the perspective taking skill crucial for, according to George Mead's perspective?

    <p>Developing a self-concept based on personality traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What capacity does middle childhood bring, according to the text?

    <p>Capacity for recursive thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of resolving Industry vs. Inferiority negatively, based on the text?

    <p>Pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do things well</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key outcome of the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, according to Erikson's theory?

    <p>Developing a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of coping mechanism do middle childhood children use when they appraise a situation as changeable?

    <p>Problem-centered coping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do middle childhood children explain emotions?

    <p>By referring to internal states rather than external events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What drives middle childhood children to make amends and strive for self-improvement?

    <p>Guilt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Between which ages do children become more aware of circumstances likely to spark mixed emotions?

    <p>6 and 12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What enhances children's moral understanding in middle childhood?

    <p>Notions of personal choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of coping mechanism do middle childhood children use when they appraise a situation as unchangeable?

    <p>Emotion-centered coping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do middle childhood children experience when their actions are not under their control?

    <p>Shame</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do mastery oriented children attribute their success to?

    <p>Their ability and effort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do learned helplessness children interpret failure?

    <p>As a result of their inability to change and control factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do mastery oriented children focus on?

    <p>Learning goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the incremental view of ability associated with?

    <p>Belief that ability can increase through effort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for an expectation or belief that can influence behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true?

    <p>Self-fulfilling prophecy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of praise emphasizes a child's traits when they succeed?

    <p>Person praise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What intervention encourages learned helplessness children to believe that they can overcome failure by exerting more effort and using better strategies?

    <p>Attribution retraining</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of children is less often targets of parental anger and cope more effectively with adversity after a divorce?

    <p>Children with easy temperament</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the long-term consequence of divorce on children's academic achievement, self-esteem, social competence, and emotional and behavioral adjustment?

    <p>Slightly lower scores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do girls typically respond to divorce, according to the text?

    <p>Internalizing reactions like crying, self-criticism, and withdrawal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group has a higher risk for adjustment problems in divorce, according to the text?

    <p>Boys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of tenth graders have tried at least one illegal drug?

    <p>39%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of births to unwed mothers in Bulgaria?

    <p>87%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of teenagers who had sexual intercourse become pregnant?

    <p>13%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the graduation rate in the USA?

    <p>75%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which perspective describes adolescence as a period resembling an era when humans evolved?

    <p>Storm and stress perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the first menstruation in girls?

    <p>Menarche</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the brain becomes a more effective executive during adolescence?

    <p>Prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common nutritional problem of adolescents?

    <p>Iron deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What eating disorder involves dieting, exercise, binge eating, and throwing up?

    <p>Bulimia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the trend in North American attitudes towards premarital sex over the past 40 years?

    <p>Becoming more liberal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of sexually active teenagers in the US are at risk for unintended pregnancy due to no contraceptive use?

    <p>18%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What age group has the highest rates of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the country?

    <p>People age 15 to 24</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most serious STD that often manifests 8–10 years later and is often infected during adolescence?

    <p>AIDS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended daily calorie intake range for boys during adolescence?

    <p>2400 to 3200 calories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the visible signs of sexual maturity that serve as additional signs of sexual maturity?

    <p>Secondary sexual characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the first ejaculation in boys?

    <p>Spermarche</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the capacity developed in formal operational adolescents to come up with new, more general logical rules through internal reflection?

    <p>Abstract operational thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the approach when faced with a problem formal operational adolescents start with a hypothesis or prediction about variables that might affect an outcome from which they deduce logical, testable inferences?

    <p>Hypothetico-deductive reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the pendulum problem, what do formal operational adolescents hypothesize will affect the pendulum?

    <p>Length of string, weight of object, how high the object is raised, how forcefully the object is pushed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can formal operational adolescents understand how to do in the pendulum problem that concrete operational children cannot?

    <p>Understand how to test one variable at a time by controlling for the other ones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to think about language as a system?

    <p>Metalinguistic awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ability becomes more selective during adolescence and better adapted to the changing demands of tasks?

    <p>Attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the conscious, strategic recall that enables new information to be used flexibly and adaptively in contexts outside the original learning situation?

    <p>Explicit memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tasks involve determining spatial relationships by considering the orientation of the surrounding environment?

    <p>Spatial perception tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group shows an advantage in reading and writing achievement in adolescence?

    <p>Girls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern?

    <p>Imaginary audience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reasoning involves coordinating theories with evidence?

    <p>Scientific reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the analysis of complete visual forms?

    <p>Spatial visualization tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ability becomes more effective during adolescence, improving storage, representation, and retrieval of information?

    <p>Strategies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group shows an advantage in mental rotation tasks?

    <p>Boys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the adolescents' belief that they have an inflated opinion of their own importance?

    <p>Personal fable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances?

    <p>Propositional thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common psychological problem of adolescence?

    <p>Depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers peer conformity in young people?

    <p>High sensation seeking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the gender difference in suicide rate during adolescence?

    <p>More males than females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What parenting style helps prevent peer conformity in adolescents?

    <p>Authoritative parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Erikson, what is an identity crisis?

    <p>A temporary period of distress as adolescents experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does role confusion in adolescence refer to?

    <p>Lack of direction and self-definition, with earlier psychosocial conflicts unresolved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Erikson believe adolescents go through in the process of forming their identity?

    <p>Inner soul searching and sifting through childhood characteristics to combine with emerging traits and commitments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of successful psychosocial development in infancy and childhood, according to Erikson?

    <p>A positive resolution of identity versus role confusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary influence on the evolution of adolescents' self-concept?

    <p>Cultural context and social influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically triggers psychological distancing from parents during puberty?

    <p>Pubertal hormonal changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes effective parenting of adolescents, according to the text?

    <p>Balancing autonomy and monitoring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes adolescent friendships, as per the text?

    <p>Characterized by intimacy and loyalty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does dating in adolescence typically evolve from casual relationships to more intimate and steady relationships?

    <p>16</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to positive romantic relationships in adolescence, according to the text?

    <p>Secure attachment with parents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the paths to identity, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>Identity diffusion, moratorium, identity foreclosure, and identity achievement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Erikson's theory suggest that adolescents need for decision-making and vocation selection?

    <p>Autonomy and initiative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What typically happens to self-esteem in mid to late adolescence, according to the text?

    <p>It generally rises, affecting adjustment and sociability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do peer groups become increasingly characterized by in adolescence?

    <p>Tight-knit cliques and crowds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the different views on self between cultural-majority and cultural-minority adolescents, as per the text?

    <p>Cultural-majority adolescents have a more positive self-view</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key aspect of adolescent development crucial for positive adjustment and sociability?

    <p>Rising self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major personality attainment of adolescence according to Erikson's theory?

    <p>Identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do researchers evaluate in progress of identity development?

    <p>Exploration of alternatives and commitment to self-chosen values and goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is associated with poor adjustment in the context of identity development?

    <p>Ruminative exploration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What supports positive self-esteem in adolescents?

    <p>Authoritative parenting and encouragement from teachers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT related to promoting healthy identity development in adolescents?

    <p>Peer competition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can foster a strong, secure ethnic identity among minority adolescents?

    <p>Supportive parents, peers, and schools</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does bicultural identity offer according to the text?

    <p>Emotional and social benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Kohlberg's theory of moral development, at which stages can moral maturity be found?

    <p>Stages 3 and 4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What influences moral reasoning and behavior in adolescents according to the text?

    <p>Warm, rational parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may influence gender intensification in adolescence?

    <p>Pubertal changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do adolescent friendships influence, as per the text?

    <p>Self-concept, identity, and stress management</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do critics challenge in Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

    <p>Moral judgments vary based on context and motivations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do adolescents' moral reasoning about conflicts between personal choice and community obligations display, according to the text?

    <p>More subtle reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the defining features of emerging adulthood according to Jeffery Arnett?

    <p>Frequent changes in living arrangements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the current average marriage age for women in contemporary urban settings?

    <p>27</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the areas of exploration for emerging adults according to the text?

    <p>Frequent moves and residence changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average marriage age for men in contemporary urban settings?

    <p>29</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for cognitive development beyond Piaget's formal operational stage?

    <p>Postformal thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive change in emerging adulthood involves viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought?

    <p>Relativistic thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of thinking involves dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they?

    <p>Dualistic thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for reflections on how we arrive at facts, beliefs, and ideas?

    <p>Epistemic cognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of individual reflection fosters advances in epistemic cognition?

    <p>Arguing with oneself over competing ideas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to fine tuning of the prefrontal cognitive control network in emerging adulthood?

    <p>Growth and myelination of stimulated neural fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances?

    <p>Postformal thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of interaction induces young people to consider the rationality of their thought processes?

    <p>Peer interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of thinking involves formulating a more satisfying perspective that synthesizes contradictions?

    <p>Commitment within relativistic thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do proponents argue about the emerging adulthood stage?

    <p>It applies to most industrialized nations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What serves as a safety net for launching adult life for many emerging adults?

    <p>Parental home</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do people now choose as their preferred way of entering into a committed intimate relationship?

    <p>Cohabitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are some of the philosophers mentioned in the text who focused on the development of a sense of conscience and virtue?

    <p>Immanuel Kant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist is associated with exploring morality through a moral psychology lens in modern-day empirical research?

    <p>Sigmund Freud</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of moral development do altruism theories emphasize?

    <p>Feeling or emotion aspect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known for exploring morality's relation to cognitive development in modern-day empirical research?

    <p>Jean Piaget</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the components that make up people's concept of intentionality according to Malle, Moses, and Baldwin (2001)?

    <p>Desire for an outcome, belief that the action will lead to the outcome, intention to perform the action, skill to perform the action, and awareness while performing it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has recent research on children's theory of mind (ToM) focused on?

    <p>Understanding others' intentions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Yuill (1984) present evidence for regarding comprehension of one's intentions in moral judgment?

    <p>Comprehension of one's intentions plays a role in moral judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Killen, Mulvey, Richardson, Jampol, and Woodward (2011), what are children capable of using when making moral judgments about the accep?

    <p>Information about one's intentions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hallmark of moral understanding according to the text?

    <p>Intentionality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some of the topics to which researchers have expanded the field of moral development in the past 20 years?

    <p>Prejudice, aggression, theory of mind, emotions, empathy, peer relationships, and parent-child interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Turiel's social domain theory show about children's development of moral standards?

    <p>Children were actually younger in developing moral standards than past psychologists predicted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Handbook of Moral Development (2006) provide?

    <p>A wide range of information about topics covered in moral development today</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Jean Piaget's theory, which stages are included in moral development?

    <p>Premoral period, heteronomous morality, autonomous morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory emphasizes the individual's construction and interpretation of morality from a socio-cognitive perspective?

    <p>Jean Piaget's theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Lawrence Kohlberg's theory categorize into pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality?

    <p>Stages of moral development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory proposed the tension between individual needs and societal demands as the basis for moral development?

    <p>Sigmund Freud's theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the judgment-action gap refer to?

    <p>The disparity between moral reasoning and behavior in real-life moral dilemmas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory of moral development includes six stages progressing from childhood through adulthood?

    <p>Lawrence Kohlberg's theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Elliot Turiel advocate for in the context of social cognition?

    <p>Social domain approach</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'judgment-action gap' refer to?

    <p>The disparity between moral reasoning and behavior in real-life moral dilemmas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Turiel's social domain theory, what does it delineate throughout development?

    <p>Differentiation of moral, societal, and psychological concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Sigmund Freud propose as the basis for moral development?

    <p>Tension between individual needs and societal demands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basis of Piaget's theory of moral development?

    <p>The individual's construction and interpretation of morality from a socio-cognitive perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget's theory, what is the term for the stage where children represent things with words and images but lack logical reasoning?

    <p>Pre-operational stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main observation that led Piaget to develop his theory of cognitive development?

    <p>Children of different ages made different mistakes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what is the term for the stage where children experience the world through actions and develop object permanence?

    <p>Sensorimotor stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Piaget propose as the reason for children of different ages making different mistakes?

    <p>Quality of intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the motivational element that guides cognitive development according to the text?

    <p>Equilibration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the state when a child is confronted with information that does not fit into their previously held schemes?

    <p>Disequilibrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for modifying a different scheme to accommodate newly encountered information?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for ignoring newly discovered information to return to a state of equilibrium?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Silverman and Geiringer propose for changing a child's mode of thought?

    <p>Expose the child to concepts reflecting a higher stage of development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the example used to illustrate the concept of disequilibrium in the text?

    <p>Dave mistaking an elephant for a horse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of slightly altering existing knowledge to accommodate new information?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of fitting new information into existing schemes?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget's theory, what is responsible for dynamic aspects of intelligence?

    <p>Operative intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what is the process of integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas called?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, which factor did he add as the fourth to development, along with maturation, experience, and the social environment?

    <p>Equilibration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the organism's attempt to keep cognitive schemes in balance, according to Piaget?

    <p>Equilibration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what is responsible for representing static aspects of intelligence?

    <p>Figurative intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what is the process of altering existing schemas to fit new information called?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what is responsible for reality involving transformations and states?

    <p>Intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what is the central focus of human development?

    <p>Cognitive development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what is the term for the process of integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what are the two processes that cannot exist without the other?

    <p>Assimilation and accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what is responsible for representing dynamic aspects of intelligence?

    <p>Operative intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what is the term for altering existing schemas to fit new information?

    <p>Accommodation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who are some of the philosophers mentioned in the text who contributed to early moral development theories?

    <p>Confucius and Rousseau</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorists are associated with exploring morality through a moral psychology lens in the modern-day?

    <p>Sigmund Freud and Carol Gilligan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of moral development theories that emphasize the affective aspect of morality?

    <p>Altruism and emotional development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does morality in itself often serve as a synonym for, according to the text?

    <p>Goodness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the five components that make up people's concept of intentionality?

    <p>Desire, belief, intention, skill, awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Turiel's social domain theory demonstrate about children's moral standards?

    <p>Children develop moral standards at a younger age than predicted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Handbook of Moral Development (2006) aim to provide?

    <p>A sense of the current state of the field of moral development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has recent research on children's theory of mind (ToM) focused on?

    <p>Understanding others' intentions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Malle, Moses, and Baldwin (2001), what is intentionality defined as?

    <p>An attribution of the target's intentions towards another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a hallmark of moral understanding according to the text?

    <p>Intentionality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did researchers Killen, Mulvey, Richardson, Jampol, and Woodward (2011) present evidence of?

    <p>With developing false belief competence (ToM), children are capable of using information about one's intentions when making moral judgments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did recent research on moral development expand the field to include?

    <p>Topics such as prejudice, aggression, theory of mind, emotions, empathy, peer relationships, and parent-child interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist's theory emphasizes the tension between individual needs and societal demands?

    <p>Sigmund Freud</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to B.F. Skinner's behaviorism theory, what shapes moral development?

    <p>Punishments and rewards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of moral reasoning is part of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory?

    <p>Post-conventional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept does Elliot Turiel's social domain theory differentiate in social cognition?

    <p>Moral, societal, and psychological concepts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Freud's theory, what does the id represent?

    <p>Selfish desires</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Skinner's theory propose as the basis for all morals?

    <p>Learned behaviors shaped by punishments and rewards</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Piaget's theory, what are the stages of childhood moral development?

    <p>Premoral, heteronomous, and autonomous morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Kohlberg's theory categorize moral reasoning into?

    <p>Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Turiel's social domain theory distinguish in social cognition?

    <p>Moral concepts, societal conventions, and personal prerogatives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Piaget, what does the term 'heteronomous morality' refer to?

    <p>The stage where children believe rules are unchangeable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Kohlberg's theory address with the term 'judgment-action gap'?

    <p>The disparity between moral reasoning and actual moral behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Piaget's theory focus on regarding morality?

    <p>The individual's construction and interpretation of morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Development of Self-Esteem, Achievement Attributions, and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood

    • Children in middle childhood develop the ability for recursive thought, allowing them to read others' messages more accurately and internalize their expectations, leading to the formation of an ideal self for self-evaluation.
    • Self-esteem in middle childhood is influenced by the discrepancy between the real self (who they actually are) and the ideal self (who they want to be), with a large gap leading to low self-esteem.
    • By age 6, children in middle childhood have formed four broad self-evaluations: academic performance, social competence, athletic competence, and physical appearance.
    • Influences on self-esteem in middle childhood include culture, gender, social structures, and child-rearing practices, with authoritative child-rearing styles leading to higher self-esteem and controlling or indulgent parenting impacting self-esteem differently.
    • Achievement attributions in middle childhood include mastery-oriented attributions, learned helplessness, and fixed views of ability, which influence how children interpret success and failure.
    • Influences on achievement attributions in middle childhood include adult communication, types of praise (person praise vs. process praise), and cognitive development, with attribution retraining being an intervention to encourage learned helplessness children to believe they can overcome failure through effort.
    • Emotional development in middle childhood involves self-conscious emotions such as pride and guilt, which become governed by personal responsibility as children integrate social expectations into their self-concepts.
    • Children in middle childhood experience guilt and pride even when no adult is present, unlike preschoolers who typically experience these emotions only in the presence of adults.
    • Middle childhood children connect success or failure to specific aspects of the self, reflecting their growing emotional and self-concept development.
    • The development of self-esteem, achievement attributions, and emotional development in middle childhood is influenced by various factors, including cognitive development, social interactions, and parental influences.
    • This developmental stage is crucial for the formation of self-concept, self-esteem, and emotional regulation, laying the foundation for future social and emotional well-being.
    • Understanding the factors and processes involved in self-esteem, achievement attributions, and emotional development in middle childhood is essential for promoting positive self-concept and emotional well-being in children.

    Adolescent Development and Relationships

    • Erikson's theory suggests that adolescents need autonomy and initiative for decision-making and vocation selection
    • Adolescents develop a sense of self through exploration and commitment
    • Adolescents' self-concept evolves with a wider array of traits, influenced by social context
    • Self-esteem generally rises in mid to late adolescence, affecting adjustment and sociability
    • Paths to identity include identity achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion
    • Cultural-majority and cultural-minority adolescents have different views on self
    • Puberty triggers psychological distancing from parents, leading to a balance between connection and separation
    • Effective parenting of adolescents balances autonomy and monitoring, influenced by various factors
    • Adolescent friendships are characterized by intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty
    • Peer groups become increasingly tightly knit, forming cliques and crowds
    • Dating in adolescence evolves from casual relationships at 12 to more intimate and steady relationships at 16
    • Relationship with parents and friends contributes to positive romantic relationships, with secure attachment predicting friendship and romantic ties

    Adolescent Development and Identity Formation

    • Long-term identity foreclosure and diffusion are related to adjustment difficulties in adolescents
    • Factors promoting healthy identity development include cognitive style, parental attachment, freedom to explore, interaction with diverse peers, and supportive schools and communities
    • Supportive parents, peers, and schools can foster a strong, secure ethnic identity among minority adolescents
    • Bicultural identity offers emotional and social benefits
    • Kohlberg's theory of moral development includes three levels with two stages each, and moral reasoning is influenced by situational factors
    • Moral maturity can be found at Stages 3 and 4, with few people reaching the postconventional level
    • Adolescents display more subtle reasoning about conflicts between personal choice and community obligations
    • Influences on moral reasoning and behavior include warm, rational parenting, extended schooling, and peer discussions
    • Critics challenge Kohlberg's theory, arguing that moral judgments vary based on context and motivations
    • Gender intensification may occur in adolescence, influenced by pubertal changes, parental beliefs, and concern with others' opinions
    • Adolescents strive for autonomy and question parental authority, with warm, supportive parenting predicting favorable adjustment
    • Adolescent friendships are based on intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty, and influence self-concept, identity, and stress management. Peers are organized into cliques and crowds, influenced by adolescent self-concepts and ethnicity.

    Theories of Moral Development

    • Theories of moral development encompass affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of morality.
    • Sigmund Freud proposed tension between individual needs and societal demands as the basis for moral development.
    • B.F. Skinner's behaviorism focused on external forces, such as reinforcement contingencies, shaping moral development.
    • Jean Piaget's theory emphasized the individual's construction and interpretation of morality from a socio-cognitive perspective.
    • Piaget's stages of moral development include the premoral period, heteronomous morality, and autonomous morality.
    • Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development includes six stages progressing from childhood through adulthood.
    • Kohlberg's theory categorizes stages into pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.
    • The judgment-action gap refers to the disparity between moral reasoning and behavior in real-life moral dilemmas.
    • Elliot Turiel advocated for a social domain approach to social cognition, differentiating moral, societal, and psychological concepts.
    • Turiel's social domain theory delineates how individuals differentiate moral, societal, and psychological concepts throughout development.
    • Theories of moral development integrate affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of morality.
    • The foundational theories of moral development include Freud's tension between individual and societal needs, Skinner's behaviorism, Piaget's socio-cognitive perspective, Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning, and Turiel's social domain theory.

    Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

    • Piaget's theory focused on how children construct an understanding of the world through discrepancies between existing knowledge and new discoveries
    • Cognitive development was central to human development, and language was dependent on cognitive understanding
    • Child-centred classrooms and "open education" directly applied Piaget's views
    • Piaget's theory has limitations such as supporting sharp stages rather than continuous development
    • Piaget argued that reality involves transformations and states, and intelligence must represent both aspects
    • Operative intelligence is responsible for dynamic aspects, while figurative intelligence represents static aspects
    • Assimilation is the process of integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas, while accommodation alters existing schemas to fit new information
    • Assimilation and accommodation are two processes that cannot exist without the other
    • Equilibration is the organism's attempt to keep cognitive schemes in balance, according to Piaget
    • Piaget added equilibration as a fourth factor to development, along with maturation, experience, and the social environment
    • Piaget's theory differed from others in its emphasis on equilibration as a factor in development
    • Piaget believed that cognitive development involves understanding and change through assimilation and accommodation

    Theories of Moral Development

    • There are four main aspects of moral theories: affective, behavioral, cognitive, and integrated perspectives.
    • Sigmund Freud's theory focuses on the tension between individual needs and societal demands, and the role of socializing agents in moral development.
    • B.F. Skinner's behaviorism theory emphasizes the influence of external forces, such as reinforcement contingencies, in shaping moral development.
    • Jean Piaget's theory centers on the individual's construction and interpretation of morality from a socio-cognitive and socio-emotional perspective, identifying stages of moral development in children.
    • Lawrence Kohlberg's influential theory of moral development is based on 6 interconnected stages of moral reasoning, falling into pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional categories.
    • Kohlberg's theory also addresses the judgment-action gap, which refers to the disparity between an individual's moral reasoning and their actual moral behavior due to hypothetical versus real-life constraints.
    • Elliot Turiel proposed the social domain theory, which differentiates moral, societal, and psychological concepts in social cognition from early development throughout the lifespan.
    • Freud's theory involves the tension between the id (selfish desires) and the super-ego (internal cultural norms).
    • Skinner's theory is based on the idea that all morals are learned behaviors shaped by punishments and rewards.
    • Piaget's theory identifies three stages of childhood moral development: premoral, heteronomous, and autonomous morality.
    • Kohlberg's theory categorizes moral reasoning into pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages, showing a progression from childhood to adulthood.
    • Turiel's social domain theory distinguishes moral concepts, societal conventions, and personal prerogatives in social cognition.

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    Test your knowledge of the development of self-esteem, achievement attributions, and emotional development in middle childhood with this quiz. Explore the factors and influences that shape children's self-concept and emotional well-being during this crucial developmental stage.

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