Microprocessors and Intel 4004

Microprocessors

• A microprocessor is an electronic component used by computers to perform tasks
• Microprocessors act as the computer's brain, handling arithmetic and control operations to execute instructions
• Microprocessors are also known as a CPU or Central Processing Unit

Before Microprocessors (Pre-1970s)

• Early computers utilized vacuum tubes, and later transistors, for processing data

History of Intel Microprocessors

• Intel was founded in 1968 by Robert Noyce, Gordon Moore, and Andrew Grove

Intel 4004

• Intel released the world's first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971
• The Intel 4004 was created by Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Masatoshi Shima
• It was designed for Busicom Corp's engineering prototype calculator
• The Intel 4004 was used in limited applications, including video games like the first microprocessor-controlled pinball game
• The 4004 was the first random logic circuit integrated into a single chip
• It comes in a ceramic 16-pin dual in-line package
• It has a 12-bit address bus
• The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit microprocessor
• It has a maximum memory of 4096 with 4-bit memory locations
• It features a set of 46 instructions
• The Intel 4004 executes instructions at 50 Kilo Instructions Per Second (KIPS)
• It contains 16 registers, each 4 bits wide
• It contains 2300 transistors and has a circuit line width of around 10 microns or 10,000 nanometers

Intel 8008

• Intel 8008 was introduced in April 1972
• It is an 8-bit microprocessor with an external 14-bit address bus
• It can address up to 16KB of memory (16,384 bytes)
• A byte is defined as an 8-bit wide binary number and K represents 1024
• It has 48 instructions and executes an ADD instruction in 20 microseconds
• It contains 3500 transistors in an 18-pin dual in-line package with a 10-micrometer circuit line width
• It was used in computer terminals, calculators, bottling machines, ASEA industrial robots and simple computers

Intel 8080 and 8085

• Intel 8080 was released in 1973
• The Intel 8080 can address up to 65536 bytes (64KB) of memory
• It can execute an ADD instruction in 2 microseconds
• It was used in the Altair 8800, one of the first personal computers
• Intel 8085 was released in 1977
• The Intel 8085 can address up to 65536 bytes of memory
• It can execute an ADD instruction in 1.3 microseconds
• The Intel 8085 has a built-in clock generator, system controller, and higher clock frequency
• Over 100 million units were sold by Intel, with around 200 million in existence

Other Microprocessor Manufacturers

• Both Intel and Motorola continue to develop new and improved microprocessors
• Zilog manufactures microprocessors including microcontrollers and embedded controllers
• The Zilog corporation has sold 500 million of its 8-bit z80 microprocessors

Intel 8086

• Intel released the 16-bit microprocessor in early June 1978
• Intel 8088 released a year later is notable in the IBM PC design due to its modifications and 8-bit external data bus
• The 8086 gave rise to the x86 architecture
• On June 5, 2018, Intel released a limited edition CPU called the Intel Core i7-8086K for the 40th anniversary of Intel 8086
• It has a 40-pin DIL package and consists of 29,000 transistors
• It gives a 1MB physical address space (2^20 = 1,048,576) with a 20-bit external address bus
• It executes instructions in 400 ns with multiplication and division
• Intel 8088 (1979) has 16 bits with 8-bit bus, used in the first IBM PC (1981)
• Another version is 80286 released in 1983 that can execute instructions in 250ns at 4.0MIPs with an update of 16MB memory address locations
• It enabled multitasking and was used in the IBM PC/AT

32-bit Era Microprocessors

• Intel 80386 (1985): 32-bit used for Windows GUI and advanced computing
• Intel 80486 (1989): 32-bit featured built-in floating-point unit and first built-in cache
• Intel Pentium (1993): 32-bit for high-speed graphics and multimedia applications

64-bit Revolution and Multi-Core Processors

• Intel Pentium 4 (2000): 32-bit for video editing, gaming, and office applications
• Intel Core Duo (2006): 32-bit, dual-core for multitasking, power-efficient laptops
• Intel Core i7 (2008): 64-bit, multi-core for high-performance computing, AI, and gaming
• Intel Core i9 (2017): 64-bit, multi-core for 3D rendering, deep learning, and extreme gaming
• Intel Core Ultra (2023-Present): 64-bit, AI-enhanced for AI-driven applications and cloud computing

Microprocessor Trends

• Moore's Law continues, demanding architecture and software changes

Processor Characteristics/Technologies

• Clock Speed: Intel and AMD processors use system buses running from 1.8 GHz up to 3.4 GHz
• Processor Speed: Measured in gigahertz (ex: 3.3 GHz)
• Sockets: Intel commonly use PGA988, LGA2011, LGA1155, LGA1156, LGA1366, and LGA775, while AMD use AM3+, AM3, AM2+, AM2, FM1, F, and 940 sockets
• Processor Architecture: Desktop and laptop processors can process 64 bits or 32 bits

Multiprocessing Abilities

• Dual processors: server motherboards might have two processor sockets (dual processors/multiprocessor platforms)
• Multi-core processing: multiple processors are installed in the same processor housing (multi-core) with up to eight cores (dual, triple, quad core)
• Multithreading: each processor core can process two threads at the same time (Intel's is Hyper-Threading and AMD's is HyperTransport which must be enabled in BIOS)
• Memory cache: a type of RAM that microprocessors can access quicker than accessing regular RAM

Cache Memory Details

• Level 1 cache (L1 cache) is on the processor chip
• Level 2 cache (L2 cache) is in the processor package but not on the processor chip
• Level 3 cache (L3 cache) is also in the processor package, farther from the processor core
• Cache memory increases processor speed by reducing the time to fetch data from slower RAM

Multicore Technology

• A multicore processor involves combining two or more independent central processing units into a single component
• Multicore processors have individual cores working together in parallel
• It describes when two or more CPUs work on a single chip

Single vs Multi Core

• Single-core architecture involves a single physical processor containing the core logic
• Multicore architecture enables the system to perform more tasks with greater overall system performance
• Multicore contrasts with dual-core that has a single chip containing two separate processors (execution cores) in the same IC

Dual Core and Quad Core Technology

• Dual-core refers to a CPU including two complete execution cores per physical processor
• It combines two processors, their caches, and cache controllers onto a single IC
• Dual cores allow tasks to be carried out in parallel streams, decreasing processing time
• Example of dual core: AMD Phenom II X2, Intel Core Duo
• Dual core was produced from 2006 to 2009
• Clock rates for dual core are 1.3 GHz to 2.6 GHz
• Quad-core refers to a CPU that includes four complete executions onto a single IC
• Cores in quad-core processors able to run multiple instructions simultaneously, increasing overall program speed

Quad core applications and More Cores

• Light Wave 3D combines a state-of-the-art renderer with powerful modelling in Quad core
• Examples of quad core processors include AMD Phenom X4, Intel Core 2 Quad, Intel Nehalem
• More cores increase multitasking performance for apps that support multiple cores.

Penta, Hexa, and Octa Core Technology

• Penta-core: a CPU with five complete execution cores per processor like AMD Phenom/Intel i3/i5
• Hexa-core: a CPU with six cores, combining six processors and their caches and cache controller onto a single integrated chip like AMD Phenom X6/Intel Core i7
• Octa-core: a CPU with eight execution cores per processor like Intel Xeon

Future of Microprocessors

• Computers are always getting better, faster, and more powerful
• Multi-core processors improve computer performance and reduce power consumption
• Multi-core processors can easily process multiple tasks at the same time
• As of 2017-2019, Intel's Comet Lake range of processors includes the Core i9-7900X with 10 cores, pushing the count upward
• Intel's Core i9-10980XE has 18 cores
• AMD gives Intel some serious competition by releasing their Ryzen Thread ripper range with 8, 12, and 16-core processors
• Intel is designing processor to mimic a human brain, with an ability to learn and grow independently -Krzanich revealed "Tangle Lake”, quantum computing revelation, a powerful 49 quadbit test chip

Programming Advancements

• Once programmable machines developed, programs and programming languages began to appear.
• Computer languages allow computer to control of the cumbersome rewiring circuits
• The first machine language was a string of ones and zeroes using binary code that's stored in the computer's memory system as a program
• John von Neumann developed a machine that accept instructions and store to memory, called von Neumann machines
• Assembly can be used to simplify entering binary code once systems became available in the early 1950s
• Assembler: allows programmers to add mnemonic codes for the addition of numbers
• Machine Language: the primitive language understood by a computer
• Assembly Language: Uses abbreviations or 'mnemonics' for binary patterns
• High-Level Language: Uses English-like commands
• 4GL: Designed for specific purposes such as commercial software development

Architecture and Pin Diagram for Microprocessors

• Computer: A programmable machine that receives input, stores and operates data/information and delivers output in a format
• Microcomputer: A programmable machine which complies with specific set or instructions (program)
• Microcontroller: silicon chip which includes microprocessor, memory, and I/O in a single package
• Microprocessor: programmable VLSI chip that includes ALU, register and control circuits
• Computers control memory/IO through connections called buses
• Before a program is written, it must be known how internal config of the microprocessor
• The same programming model is stored on each core in a multi core microprocessor
• Each core is able to execute separate tasks or threads simultaneously
• The Thread includes: program counter/register set/task space
• Code/data section/operating system resources can be shared amongst threads

Microprocessor Functions

• Data transfer between itself and the memory or I/O system
• Performs simple arithmetic and logic operations
• Manages program flow using simple decisions

Connections Between Memory and CPU

• (How to read data off memory) CPU sends address of memory location, then read signal to read data
• (How to write data to memory) CPU sends address of memory, then write signal + data to be written

Main Components

• Main Memory: Fast memory that operates at electronic speed which consists of a large number of semiconductor storage which represent 1 bit
• Cache memory: unit of RAM which smaller/faster
• Control Unit: Coordinates actions and all operations of units/Generates transfers during processing
• Arithmetic Logic Unit: performs basic algabraic functions
• There are a set of buses called the system bus

Processor Registers

• Instruction Register: contains the current instruction being executed
• Program counter: stores the memory address of next instruction to be executed
• General purpose registers: stores operands for processing

System Buses

• The system bus interconnects computer components with 3 types of buses
• Address bus: Requests a memory location from memory or I/O devices
• If I/O addressed, address bus holds address from 0000H through FFFFH, where memory is variable depending on type
• Data bus: Transports information between microprocessor/memory/IO varying from 8-64 bits
• Contol bus: Selects a memory location
• MRDC: checks memory read control
• MWTC: Checks the memory write control
• IORC: Checks the input/output read control
• IOWC Checks input/output write control
• Overbar: indicates the control of signals that are low and at zero

8086 architecture and Bus Structure

• The 8086 has two blocks; BIU and EU for address handling transactions and instruction fetches
• EU executes system bytes from queue asynchronously for an overlapping in fetch with pipelining
• BIU contains instruction queue, segment registers, instruction pointer, adder
• EU contains control circuitry, instruction decoder, ALU, and flag register

8086 Pin Details

• The intel 8088 uses 20-line address
• Intel 8086 is 16-bit HMOS microprocessor available in 40 pin DIP Ship
• 5V is used for operation
• 16-low order address bus lines are in multiplex with data and/or or status signals
• AD0-AD15: Multiplexed memory
• A16-A19: A high address bus which is multiplex