Microprocessor Components & Applications

• Module 1 discusses the structural components of microprocessors/microcontrollers.

Invention and Size of Microprocessors

• The first microprocessor, like the Intel 4004, was invented by Ted Hoff, Masatoshi Shima, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor.
• Microprocessor sizes include 8-bit (reads/writes 1 byte at a time), 16-bit (reads/writes 2 bytes), 32-bit (reads/writes 4 bytes), and 64-bit (reads/writes the only byte).
• Microprocessors execute operations or functions based on the program written in assembly language, with a lifespan exceeding 3000 hours.
• Microprocessors are found in household electronics like washing machines, fridges, and microwave ovens.

Microprocessor Definition

• Microprocessors are mainly used in embedded control applications such as household appliances, automobiles, and computer peripherals.
• A microprocessor is an integrated electronic circuit that controls the CPU functions in computers and digital devices.
• The CPU's function is managed by a single integrated circuit that processes binary input data according to given instructions and generates output.
• Microprocessors contain millions of components like transistors, registers, and diodes.

Components of Microprocessors

• The primary components include the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), control unit, input-output devices, and register array.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• The ALU performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (NOR, AND, NAND, OR, XOR, NOT, XNOR).
• The ALU executes math computations, comparisons, and logic testing, including Boolean functions used in circuit designs.
• The processor sends signals to the ALU, which interprets instructions and performs calculations.

The Control Unit

• The control unit manages instructions and generates signals to operate other components.
• Control Units (CUs) receive signals from the CPU to move data and direct the ALU.
• CUs consist of components like decoders, clocks, and control logic circuits that transmit signals within the microprocessor.
• Decoders interpret commands and send signals to the ALU or registers, while control logic units transmit signals to different sections of the microprocessor for action execution and clocks synchronize timing.

Registers

• Registers are temporary data holding places in microprocessors that maintain data like computer instructions and storage addresses.
• Registers have specific functions, such as instruction registers, program counters, accumulator, and memory address registers.
• A program register holds the address of instructions from random access memory.
• The register array consists of registers used by programmers to store arbitrary data, known as general-purpose registers.
• Registers not used by programmers are reserved registers.
• The length of the register is known as the computer's word length.

Input-Output Devices

• Input-output devices are used to transfer data between microcomputers and external devices

Buses

• Microprocessors use buses to move data, which are classifications of wiring for specific tasks.
• The data bus transfers data between the CPU and RAM, the computer's primary memory.
• The control bus sends information to coordinate multiple tasks.
• The address bus transmits addresses between the CPU and RAM for data processing.

Cache Memory

• Advanced microprocessors use memory caches to retain recently used data.
• Memory caches speed up computing by reducing the need to access slower RAM.
• Computers may have level 1, 2, or 3 caches, indicating the order in which the CPU checks for data.
• Manufacturers often integrate level 2 and 3 caches into the microprocessor to enhance processing speed.

Materials

• Microprocessors are made of silicon or germanium, which are semiconductors used in almost all electronic components.

Generations of Microprocessors

• First Generation: 4-bit microprocessors
• Second Generation: 8-bit microprocessors introduced in 1973
• Third Generation: 16-bit microprocessors introduced in 1978
• Fourth Generation: 32-bit microprocessors
• Fifth Generation: 64-bit microprocessors

Working of Microprocessors

• Microprocessors fetch instructions from memory, decode them, and execute them in binary form to produce output.
• The power of a microprocessor is measured in bits.
• Fetching (IF): The initial step where the microprocessor retrieves instructions from memory.
• Decoding (ID): The second step involves decoding the fetched instruction.
• Executing (EX): The final step executes the instruction and generates the output

Best Companies of Microprocessors

• AMD (Advanced Micro Devices), Intel, Nvidia, Marvell Technology Group, Enoceangmbh, Ensilica, ARM, and Adapteva are among the top manufacturers.
• AMD's Ryzen series and Intel's Core i9-9900K are notable microprocessors.

Applications

• Microprocessors are used in gaming, web browsing, document creation, mathematical calculations, simulations, and photo editing.
• They are also found in in-home appliances, automotive electronics, metering, mobile electronics, and building automation.

Advantages

• Low cost, high speed, small size, low power consumption
• Versatile, reliable, portable, easy to implement and modify.

Disadvantages

• Floating-point operations are not supported.
• Can get overheated.

Microprocessor vs Microcontroller Comparison

• Microprocessors is general purpose computer, while a microcontroller is a microcomputer itself.
• In Microprocessors, the memory, I/O ports, timers, interrupts are not integrated, while they are all integrated inside the microcontroller
• Microprocessors require additional digital components to function, Microcontrollers functions without extra components.
• Microprocessors tend to be bulkier and more expensive, while Microcontrollers is simpler, more economic and compact
• Microprocessors cannot handle Boolean functions, while Microcontrollers can
• Microprocessors have a higher accessing time, while Microcontrollers have a low accessing time
• Microprocessors have very few programmable pins, while Microcontrollers have more programmable pins
• Microprocessors has very few bit handling instructions, while Microcontrollers has many
• Microprocessors are commonly found in PCs and laptops, while Microcontrollers are widely used in small control systems
• Examples of Microprocessors are INTEL 8086, INTEL Pentium series and Microcontrollers are INTEL8051,89960,PIC16F877

Types of Microprocessors

• Vector Processors: Designed for vector computations using arrays of operands, useful for high-intensity data processing tasks like weather forecasting and genome mapping; examples include IBM 390/VF and DEC's vax 9000.
• SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) Processors: Array processors designed for vector computations and applications like image processing, 3D rendering, speech recognition, networking, and DSP functions.
• Scalar and Superscalar Processors: Scalar processors execute scalar data, including RISC and CISC types where Superscalar processors execute multiple instructions per clock cycle using multiple pipelines.
• Digital Signal Processors: Used for processing signals in digital form, with applications in audio and image processing, video compression, and speech recognition; examples include Motorola 56000 and national Im 32900.
• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Processors: Use simple instructions and are applied in high-end tasks like video processing and telecommunications.
• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Processors: Employ complex instructions and require external memory, typically used in low-end applications like security and home automation systems.
• ASIC (Application-Specific Integrated Circuits) Processors: Designed for special functions or specific applications.