Microeconomics Chapters 10 and 11: Externalities
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Questions and Answers

What does a negative externality typically lead to in the market?

  • Increased market equilibrium quantity
  • Overproduction and lower prices (correct)
  • Equal production at socially optimal levels
  • Underproduction and higher prices

Which of the following is an example of a positive externality?

  • Vaccinations provided to the public (correct)
  • Air pollution from factories
  • Noise pollution from construction sites
  • Second-hand smoke from cigarettes

What encompasses both private and external costs in the context of negative externalities?

  • Private cost only
  • Market equilibrium cost
  • Social cost (correct)
  • Individual welfare cost

In welfare economics, market efficiency is achieved when which two components are equal?

<p>Marginal benefit and marginal cost (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of positive externalities on market prices?

<p>Prices decrease leading to underproduction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is not classified as a cause of market failure?

<p>Perfect competition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the socially optimal quantity in the presence of positive externalities?

<p>It is greater than the market equilibrium quantity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes marginal costs in relation to negative externalities?

<p>They are ignored in market transactions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a solution to negative externalities in the context of pollution?

<p>Corrective taxes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic that distinguishes public goods from common resources?

<p>Public goods are non-excludable and non-rival. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common challenge to the Coase Theorem?

<p>Absence of property rights (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do subsidies provided by the government help with goods that have positive externalities?

<p>They help adjust the quantity closer to the social optimum. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a positive externality as discussed?

<p>A homeowner planting a garden enjoyed by the neighborhood. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best defines the free-rider problem?

<p>When people benefit from goods without contributing to their cost. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of good is characterized as non-excludable and rival?

<p>Common resource (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a benefit of higher education considered a positive externality?

<p>Increased innovation and productivity in society (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of national defense as a public good?

<p>It is non-rival and non-excludable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can lead to the Tragedy of the Commons?

<p>Individual incentives to overuse a common resource. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a common resource?

<p>A river open for fishing by anyone. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which solution is NOT a way to address the overuse of common resources?

<p>Increasing access to the resource. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can government intervention help with public health as a public good?

<p>By subsidizing vaccinations to promote general health. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of the Tragedy of the Commons?

<p>Faster depletion of resources than they can be replenished. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a proposed solution to the Tragedy of the Commons?

<p>Enhancing individual access to shared resources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common challenge associated with public goods and common resources?

<p>The need for government intervention to ensure efficient outcomes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a corrective tax, such as a carbon tax?

<p>To internalize the external cost associated with pollution (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do tradable pollution permits operate within a market?

<p>Firms must purchase permits to pollute, creating a financial incentive to reduce emissions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the Coase Theorem?

<p>It asserts that well-defined property rights and low transaction costs lead to efficient resource allocation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary concern regarding the implementation of pollution taxes?

<p>They may disproportionately affect low-income households. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of subsidies for positive externalities, which of the following is NOT an example?

<p>Direct cash payments to fossil fuel companies (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a corrective tax is set equal to the external cost?

<p>It reduces pollution to a level that is socially optimal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major justification for using market-based policies, such as tradable pollution permits?

<p>They provide flexibility for firms to find the least expensive way to reduce emissions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements correctly notes the role of public policies addressing negative externalities?

<p>They use a mix of direct regulations and market-based approaches to manage externalities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Externality

An uncompensated impact of one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander.

Negative Externality

An action causing harm to others (e.g., pollution).

Positive Externality

An action giving benefits to others (e.g., education).

Market Failure

When free markets fail to allocate resources efficiently.

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Social Cost

The cost to society as a whole, including the private cost and external cost.

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Socially Optimal Quantity

The quantity of a good or service that maximizes total surplus (benefits minus costs) for society as a whole.

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Negative Externality (Result)

Leads to overproduction, lower prices than socially optimal.

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Positive Externality (Result)

Leads to underproduction, lower prices than socially optimal.

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Command-and-Control Policies

Government regulations directly controlling pollution levels, such as setting emission limits.

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Market-Based Policies

Using economic incentives to reduce pollution, like corrective taxes or tradable permits.

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Corrective Taxes (Pigovian Taxes)

Taxes levied on activities generating negative externalities, aiming to internalize the external cost.

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Tradable Pollution Permits

Government-issued permits allowing a certain amount of pollution, which can be bought and sold, encouraging firms to reduce emissions.

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Subsidies (Positive Externalities)

Financial support given to activities generating positive externalities, like education or research.

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Coase Theorem

If property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, private solutions can efficiently allocate resources, regardless of initial ownership.

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Climate Change and Carbon Tax

A carbon tax internalizes the social cost of greenhouse gases, incentivizing emission reductions and funding environmental programs.

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Objections to Pollution Taxes

Concerns about pollution taxes include fairness, potential economic impacts on lower-income households, and industrial competitiveness.

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Example: Education as a Positive Externality

Education provides benefits to society, such as higher productivity, lower crime rates, and informed voters, even if the individual student doesn't directly pay for these benefits.

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Example: Pollution as a Negative Externality

Pollution from factories can harm nearby residents' health, despite the factory not paying directly for those health costs.

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Coase Theorem Challenge: Transaction Costs

The Coase Theorem often fails in practice because transaction costs (negotiating and enforcing agreements) are often too high.

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Public Goods

Non-excludable and non-rival goods, meaning that people cannot be prevented from using them, and one person's use doesn't reduce the availability for others.

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Free-Rider Problem

People receive the benefits of a good without paying for it, leading to underproduction of the good.

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Common Resource

A good that is rivalrous (one person's use reduces others' use) but non-excludable (difficult to prevent anyone from using it).

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Tragedy of the Commons

The overuse and depletion of a common resource due to individual incentives where everyone acts in their own self-interest, leading to the resource's destruction.

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Government Intervention (Public Goods)

Governments often provide public goods through taxation, as the private market fails to provide them efficiently due to the free-rider problem.

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Overfishing

Excessive fishing that depletes fish stocks faster than they can replenish, leading to ecological damage and economic consequences.

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Solutions to the Tragedy of the Commons

Possible solutions include government regulation, privatization, property rights, and international agreements to manage common resources sustainably.

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Public Health (Public Good)

Public health measures, such as vaccinations, are a public good because they benefit everyone, even those who don't contribute directly, making it essential for government intervention.

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Study Notes

Microeconomics: Externalities, Public Goods, and Common Resources

  • Market failure occurs when free markets do not efficiently allocate resources.
  • Market failures include externalities, public goods, market power, and asymmetric information.
  • This study focuses on Chapters 10 and 11.

Externalities

  • An externality is the uncompensated impact of one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander.
  • Externalities can be positive (e.g., education, vaccinations) or negative (e.g., pollution).
  • Negative externalities lead to overproduction, and result in lower prices than socially optimal.
  • Positive externalities lead to underproduction, and result in lower prices than socially optimal.
  • The social cost includes private cost and external cost.
  • Socially optimal quantity is often different than the market equilibrium quantity.

Negative Externalities

  • Negative externalities occur when an individual or firm imposes an unaccounted cost on others.
  • Examples include air pollution from factories, second-hand smoke from cigarettes, and noise pollution from construction.

Positive Externalities

  • Positive externalities occur when an individual or firm's actions provide benefits to others.
  • Examples include vaccinations, education, and research and development.

Public Policies to Address Negative Externalities

  • Command-and-Control Policies: Direct government regulations (e.g., emission limits).
  • Market-Based Policies:
    • Corrective (Pigovian) taxes: taxes equal to the external cost, to internalize the negative externality, for example a carbon tax.
    • Tradable pollution permits: permits issued to create a market for pollution allowances. Firms reducing emissions can sell their excess to others or buy emission permits.

Public Policies to Address Positive Externalities

  • Subsidies:Financial support for activities with positive externalities.
  • Examples: Grants for education, tax breaks for R&D.

The Coase Theorem

  • If property rights are well-defined and transaction costs are low, resources will naturally gravitate to their highest-valued use.
  • This means individuals can reach private solutions to externalities.

The Tragedy of the Commons

  • Common resources are rivalrous and non-excludable, leading to overuse.
  • Overuse leads to depletion issues, such as overfishing/overgrazing (e.g., the ocean, public lands).
  • Solutions include regulation, quotas, and property rights.

Public Goods

  • Public goods are non-excludable and non-rival.
  • Examples include national defense, public fireworks displays, and clean air.
  • The free-rider problem occurs when people benefit from a public good without contributing.
  • Government provision funded through taxes can solve the free-rider problem.

Case Studies

  • Climate Change and Carbon Taxes: Climate change is a global negative externality, and a carbon tax can help to internalize the social cost of greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Education as a Positive Externality: Society benefits from education beyond the individual student, such as higher productivity and informed voters.
  • Air Pollution as a Negative Externality: Factories impose health costs on nearby residents, not included in their private costs. Regulations, or corrective taxes can help address this externality.

Key Takeaways

  • Public goods and common resources present unique challenges.
  • Government intervention can enhance efficient outcomes.
  • A balance between benefits and costs of public solutions is important.

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Principles of Microeconomics: Externalities, Public Goods, and Common Resources PDF Fall 2024

Description

Explore the concepts of externalities, public goods, and common resources in microeconomics. This quiz focuses on understanding market failures, including the impacts of positive and negative externalities on resource allocation. Dive into the differences between social costs and market equilibrium quantities as discussed in Chapters 10 and 11.

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