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Questions and Answers
Which of the following species of Plasmodium are known to infect humans?
Which of the following species of Plasmodium are known to infect humans?
- P.falciparum, P.vivax, P.malariae, and P.ovale (correct)
- P.falciparum, P.vivax, and P.malariae
- Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, and P.falciparum
- P.malariae, P.ovale, and Cryptosporidium
What is the infective form of the malaria parasite that is introduced into the human blood through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito?
What is the infective form of the malaria parasite that is introduced into the human blood through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito?
- Gametocyte
- Sporozoite (correct)
- Merozoite
- Sporoblast
What is the phylum of Plasmodium species?
What is the phylum of Plasmodium species?
- Sporozoa
- Arthropoda
- Protozoa
- Apicomplexa (correct)
What is the definitive host of the malaria parasite?
What is the definitive host of the malaria parasite?
What is the stage of the life cycle of Plasmodium where the sporozoites enter into liver parenchyma cells?
What is the stage of the life cycle of Plasmodium where the sporozoites enter into liver parenchyma cells?
What percentage of infections are caused by P.vivax and P.falciparum?
What percentage of infections are caused by P.vivax and P.falciparum?
What is the shape of the sporozoites before they transform inside the liver cells?
What is the shape of the sporozoites before they transform inside the liver cells?
During the pre-erythrocytic schizogony cycle, what happens to the liver cell after the cycle is complete?
During the pre-erythrocytic schizogony cycle, what happens to the liver cell after the cycle is complete?
Which Plasmodium species differs from others in that developing erythrocytic schizonts aggregate in the capillaries of the brain and other internal organs?
Which Plasmodium species differs from others in that developing erythrocytic schizonts aggregate in the capillaries of the brain and other internal organs?
During erythrocytic schizogony, what is the stage of the parasite that appears as a ring shape?
During erythrocytic schizogony, what is the stage of the parasite that appears as a ring shape?
What is the process by which merozoites develop into male and female gametocytes within red blood cells?
What is the process by which merozoites develop into male and female gametocytes within red blood cells?
How long does the pre-erythrocytic schizogony cycle of P.ovale take?
How long does the pre-erythrocytic schizogony cycle of P.ovale take?
What is the shape of gametocytes of P. falciparum?
What is the shape of gametocytes of P. falciparum?
How long can the half-life of mature gametocytes in the bloodstream be?
How long can the half-life of mature gametocytes in the bloodstream be?
What is the term for the host carrying gametocytes?
What is the term for the host carrying gametocytes?
What is the result of hypnozoites being reactivated in the liver?
What is the result of hypnozoites being reactivated in the liver?
Which Plasmodium species do not have a hypnozoite stage?
Which Plasmodium species do not have a hypnozoite stage?
What is the term for the process by which microgametocytes form microgametes?
What is the term for the process by which microgametocytes form microgametes?
What is the result of the microgametes penetrating the macrogametes in Plasmodium fertilization?
What is the result of the microgametes penetrating the macrogametes in Plasmodium fertilization?
What is the characteristic of erythrocytic infection in Plasmodium?
What is the characteristic of erythrocytic infection in Plasmodium?
What is the effect of parasitized and non-parasitized RBCs on anemia?
What is the effect of parasitized and non-parasitized RBCs on anemia?
Which Plasmodium species infects erythrocytes of all ages?
Which Plasmodium species infects erythrocytes of all ages?
What is the result of P.falciparum-infected erythrocytes adhering to each other and to blood vessel linings?
What is the result of P.falciparum-infected erythrocytes adhering to each other and to blood vessel linings?
At what stage do sporozoites go to the mosquito's salivary glands?
At what stage do sporozoites go to the mosquito's salivary glands?
What is the challenge in diagnosing P.vivax due to its life cycle?
What is the challenge in diagnosing P.vivax due to its life cycle?
What is the reason why bone marrow (BM) samples are needed for diagnosis of P.vivax?
What is the reason why bone marrow (BM) samples are needed for diagnosis of P.vivax?
What is the treatment for drug-resistant P.falciparum?
What is the treatment for drug-resistant P.falciparum?
What is the purpose of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
What is the purpose of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
What is the method of preventing exposure to mosquito bites?
What is the method of preventing exposure to mosquito bites?
What is the purpose of taking chemoprophylaxis like Chloroquine and anti-folate drugs?
What is the purpose of taking chemoprophylaxis like Chloroquine and anti-folate drugs?
What is the primary challenge in diagnosing Plasmodium vivax?
What is the primary challenge in diagnosing Plasmodium vivax?
What is the purpose of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
What is the purpose of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
What is the treatment for drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum?
What is the treatment for drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum?
Why are bone marrow (BM) samples needed for diagnosis of P.vivax?
Why are bone marrow (BM) samples needed for diagnosis of P.vivax?
What is the significance of the complex life cycle of P.vivax in diagnosis?
What is the significance of the complex life cycle of P.vivax in diagnosis?
What is the primary method of controlling malaria?
What is the primary method of controlling malaria?
What is the role of serology in diagnosing Plasmodium species?
What is the role of serology in diagnosing Plasmodium species?
What is the purpose of taking chemoprophylaxis in preventing malaria?
What is the purpose of taking chemoprophylaxis in preventing malaria?
What is the significance of avoiding exposure to mosquito bites in controlling malaria?
What is the significance of avoiding exposure to mosquito bites in controlling malaria?
What is the result of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
What is the result of using antimosquito chemicals like DDT and Malathion?
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Study Notes
Plasmodium Protozoa
- Belong to Phylum: Apicomplexa and Class: Sporozoa
- Complex life cycle with sexual and asexual reproductive phases
- Intracellular parasites, including Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, and malarial parasites (Plasmodium species)
Plasmodium Species (Blood Sporozoa)
- Four species infect humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale
- Vector-borne disease, with P. vivax and P. falciparum accounting for 95% of infections
Life Cycle
- Definitive host: female Anopheles mosquito
- Human cycle: sporozoites introduced into human blood through mosquito bite
- Life cycle stages:
- Primary exo-erythrocytic or pre-erythrocytic schizogony
- Erythrocytic schizogony
- Gametogony
- Secondary exo-erythrocytic or dormant schizogony
Primary Exo-Erythrocytic or Pre-Erythrocytic Schizogony
- Sporozoites enter liver parenchyma cells
- Multiple nuclear divisions and cytoplasmic division
- Develop into primary exo-erythrocytic schizont
- Duration: 6-16 days, depending on species
Erythrocytic Schizogony
- Merozoites enter erythrocytes (specific receptors)
- Multiply and initiate erythrocytic schizogony
- Pass through trophozoites (ring stage), schizonts, and merozoites
- Red cell rupture releases merozoites, which infect fresh red blood cells
- Multiplication in RBCs leads to clinical attack of malaria
Gametogony (Gametocytogenesis)
- Merozoites develop into male (microgametocytes) and female gametocytes (macrogametocytes)
- Mature gametocytes are round (P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale) or elongated/crescent-shaped (P. falciparum)
- Host carrying gametocytes is known as carrier
- Gametocytes' half-life in blood stream: 2-3 days
Secondary Exo-Erythrocytic or Dormant Schizogony
- Hypnozoite or sleeping form: resting stage of sporozoites in liver
- Rounded, uni-nucleate, and dormant
- Reactivates after 2 years, producing secondary exo-erythrocytic schizonts and merozoites, leading to relapse of malaria
- P. falciparum and P. malariae: no hypnozoite, no relapse
Pathogenicity and Symptoms
- Erythrocytic infection develops symptoms, exo-erythrocytic has no symptoms
- RBC destruction leads to anemia
- P. vivax and P. ovale infect youngest erythrocytes, while P. malariae infects oldest
- P. falciparum invades erythrocytes of all ages, producing extensive parasitemia and fatal infection
- Symptoms include chills, fever, headache, muscular pain, malaise, nausea, vomiting, and increased pulse and respiration rates
Diagnosis
- Microscopy: thin and thick blood films
- Immunochromatographic methods: detecting antigens in blood
- Other methods: serology (detecting antibodies) and PCR
- Challenges in diagnosis: low parasite density and complex life cycle
Treatment and Control
- Chloroquine and amodiaquine for treatment
- P. falciparum: quinine or combination therapy for drug-resistant cases
- Control measures:
- Antimosquito chemicals (e.g., DDT, Malathion) to prevent Anopheles mosquito breeding
- Avoiding exposure to mosquito bites
- Chemoprophylaxis: Chloroquine and anti-folate drugs
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