Metabolism, Glucides, Glycolysis

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Questions and Answers

Considering the allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), which of the following scenarios would MOST significantly impede glycolytic flux in a well-fed, resting muscle cell?

  • A decrease in pH due to lactate accumulation, enhancing substrate binding affinity.
  • Increased levels of ATP and citrate, indicating high energy charge and citric acid cycle intermediates. (correct)
  • Elevated levels of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate signaling increased insulin sensitivity.
  • A sudden surge in AMP concentration due to strenuous exercise.

In the context of erythrocytes relying solely on glycolysis for ATP production, what would be the MOST immediate metabolic consequence of a genetic defect causing a complete loss of function of bisphosphoglycerate mutase?

  • An increased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, impairing oxygen delivery to tissues.
  • A decrease in the rate of glycolysis due to feedback inhibition by accumulated 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. (correct)
  • A shift towards increased ATP production, compensating for the loss of the Rapoport-Luebering cycle.
  • A buildup of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate, leading to enhanced oxygen release from hemoglobin.

If a researcher discovers a novel allosteric inhibitor that specifically targets pyruvate kinase in liver cells, what would be the MOST likely outcome regarding blood glucose levels and gluconeogenesis?

  • A rapid depletion of liver glycogen stores as the cells attempt to overcome the pyruvate kinase inhibition.
  • No significant change in blood glucose levels as other regulatory mechanisms compensate for the pyruvate kinase inhibition.
  • A decrease in blood glucose levels due to increased flux through glycolysis in the liver.
  • An increase in blood glucose levels as gluconeogenesis is upregulated to compensate for reduced glycolysis. (correct)

Consider a scenario where a genetic mutation results in a constitutively active form of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK). What long-term metabolic adaptations would be MOST expected in skeletal muscle cells?

<p>Enhanced fatty acid oxidation and reduced reliance on glucose as a fuel source. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios would MOST directly lead to an accumulation of citrate in the mitochondrial matrix, subsequently affecting glycolytic flux?

<p>Inhibition of the electron transport chain at Complex III, reducing ATP synthesis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher introduces a non-hydrolyzable analog of GTP into a liver cell undergoing gluconeogenesis, how would this MOST directly affect the regulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK)?

<p>It would enhance PEPCK gene transcription by activating transcription factors via the cAMP pathway. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a hepatocyte, what would be the MOST immediate consequence of a pharmacological intervention that completely blocks the malate-aspartate shuttle?

<p>An increase in the cytosolic NADH/NAD+ ratio, inhibiting glycolysis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the role of the Cori cycle, what would be the MOST DIRECT metabolic consequence of a complete deficiency in hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase?

<p>Impaired release of glucose from the liver into the bloodstream, leading to hypoglycemia during intense exercise. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher discovers a bacterial toxin that specifically and irreversibly inhibits the enzyme enolase, what would be the MOST immediate consequence on cellular metabolism in a eukaryotic cell?

<p>Accumulation of 2-phosphoglycerate and decreased production of pyruvate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where a patient has a rare genetic defect causing a complete loss of function of the enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase, what compensatory mechanism would be MOST crucial for maintaining ATP production in skeletal muscle during intense anaerobic exercise?

<p>Reliance on the creatine phosphate system for immediate ATP regeneration. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST immediate effect on the citric acid cycle if a potent inhibitor of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)-dependent enzymes is introduced into a cell?

<p>Reduction in succinyl-CoA production due to inhibition of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the intricate regulation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH), which of the following hormonal scenarios would MOST effectively stimulate its activity in a well-fed individual?

<p>High insulin levels, activating PDH phosphatase and stimulating complex activity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the citric acid cycle, if a cell is treated with a drug that selectively inhibits succinate dehydrogenase, what compensatory metabolic adjustment would MOST likely occur to maintain ATP production?

<p>Increased flux through glycolysis and lactate fermentation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Suppose a rare genetic mutation results in a form of citrate synthase that is insensitive to ATP inhibition, what long-term metabolic consequences would be MOST likely observed?

<p>Increased oxygen consumption and heat production due to uncontrolled citric acid cycle activity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST significant consequence of a genetic defect causing a complete loss of function of malate dehydrogenase in the mitochondrial matrix?

<p>A buildup of malate and a decrease in oxaloacetate levels, impairing the citric acid cycle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher discovers a novel compound that specifically inhibits the transport of pyruvate into the mitochondria, what would be the MOST immediate effect on glucose metabolism under aerobic conditions?

<p>Increased lactate production due to shunting of pyruvate to anaerobic glycolysis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of anaplerotic reactions, what would be the MOST direct consequence of a deficiency in pyruvate carboxylase in liver cells?

<p>Impaired gluconeogenesis due to reduced oxaloacetate production, limiting the citric acid cycle intermediates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST significant metabolic adaptation in a cell forced to rely solely on glutamine as its primary carbon source due to a genetic defect preventing glucose uptake?

<p>Enhanced production of oxaloacetate from glutamine via anaplerotic reactions to sustain the citric acid cycle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a scenario where a researcher introduces a mutant form of hexokinase that has a significantly reduced affinity for glucose but an increased affinity for ATP, what would be the MOST likely consequence on glucose metabolism in a muscle cell?

<p>Reduced glucose uptake and phosphorylation, leading to decreased glycolytic flux. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering the role of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP) in regulating glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, what would be the MOST immediate metabolic consequence of a mutation that results in a constitutively active phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2) in liver cells?

<p>Stimulation of glycolysis and inhibition of gluconeogenesis due to elevated levels of F-2,6-BP. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST significant effect on carbohydrate metabolism in a cell treated with a potent inhibitor of the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase?

<p>Inhibition of glycogen breakdown, leading to decreased glucose availability. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a cell is treated with a drug that specifically inhibits the glycerophosphate shuttle, what would be the MOST immediate effect on ATP production during aerobic respiration?

<p>Reduced ATP production due to impaired transfer of cytosolic NADH electrons into the mitochondria. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST direct outcome of a genetic mutation causing a loss of function in the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase?

<p>Decreased activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher discovers a compound that specifically inhibits the enzyme aldolase, what would be the MOST immediate consequence on glycolysis?

<p>Accumulation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST direct effect on the citric acid cycle of introducing a compound that inhibits the ATP synthase complex in the electron transport chain?

<p>Overall slow down of the citric acid cycle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a patient has a genetic defect which results in near-total loss of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in skeletal muscle, what would you expect to be the MOST immediate consequence during intense anaerobic exercise?

<p>An accumulation of pyruvate and a decrease in the regeneration of NAD+ for glycolysis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST immediate effect of inhibiting the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase on glycolysis.

<p>An increase in the concentration of glucose-6-phosphate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST significant consequence of administering a drug that inhibits the enzyme fumarase?

<p>An increase in the concentration of fumarate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST likely outcome if a researcher discovers a novel allosteric activator specifically for the enzyme pyruvate carboxylase?

<p>Increased blood glucose levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST critical consequence of a genetic deficiency that completely disables the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase (TPI)?

<p>A buildup of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), severely reducing ATP production. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Suppose a cell were treated with a drug that completely inhibits the enzyme ATP-citrate lyase. What would be the MOST likely effect on fatty acid synthesis?

<p>Decreased fatty acid synthesis due to a lack of cytosolic acetyl-CoA. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a patient lacks the enzyme carnitine acyltransferase I (CAT-1), what is the MOST immediate metabolic consequence?

<p>Impaired transport of fatty acids into the mitochondrial matrix for beta-oxidation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the MOST direct metabolic consequence of a mutation that causes a loss of regulated expression and leads to an overexpression of the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) in the liver?

<p>Increased blood glucose. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under anaerobic conditions, what is the MOST immediate reason that muscle cells must convert pyruvate to lactate?

<p>To regenerate NAD+ necessary for glycolysis to continue. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a researcher discovers a molecule that transports cytosolic NADH into the mitochondrial matrix by directly reducing ubiquinone without involving Complex I, what would be the MOST expected effect on ATP synthesis?

<p>Slightly reduced ATP synthesis because fewer protons will be pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane compared to NADH oxidation via Complex I. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If an organism had a mutation that resulted in it being unable to phosphorylate glucose, what would be the MOST likely direct result?

<p>The organism would be unable to trap the glucose within cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the MOST critical metabolic consequence of the total inhibition, via a drug, of the enzyme dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase ?

<p>A build up of both pyruvate and alpha-ketoglutarate. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Metabolismul

Totalitatea reactiilor si proceselor care au loc in organisme. Include transformari chimice si energetice.

Catabolismul

Totalitatea proceselor de degradare a constituentilor celulari in substante mai simple.

Anabolismul

Totalitatea proceselor de sinteza.

Principalele surse de glucide

Amidonul (paine, cartof), zaharoza (zahar, dulciuri, fructe), lactoza (lapte), glucoza, galactoza, fructoza, pentoze (miere si fructe). Forma absorbabila: monozaharid

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Glicoliza

Procesul de oxidare a glucozei la lactat (anaerob) sau piruvat (aerob).

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Unde are loc glicoliza?

Se desfasoara in toate celulele in citosol.

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Care este scopul principal al glicolizei?

Sinteza de ATP

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Prima reactie in glicoliza

Glucoza -> Glucozo-6-fosfat + ADP. Enzima: hexokinaza

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A doua reactie in glicoliza

Glucozo-6-fosfat <-> Fructozo-6-fosfat. Enzima: fosfoglucoizomeraza

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Conversia Fructozo-6-fosfat

Fructozo-6-fosfat -> Fructozo-1,6-bisfosfat. Enzima: fosfofructokinaza-1 (FFK-1)

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Transformarea Fructozo-1,6-bisfosfat

Fructozo-1,6-bisfosfat -> dihidroxiacetonfosfat (DHAP) + gliceraldehid-3-fosfat (G-3-P). Enzima: Aldolaza

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Reactia cu G-3-P

G-3-P + NAD+ + Pi <-> 1,3-bisfosfoglicerat + NADH + H+. Enzima: gliceraldehid-3-fosfat-dehidrogenaza

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Transformarea 1,3-bisfosfogliceratului

1,3-bisfosfoglicerat <-> 3-fosfoglicerat + ATP. Enzima: 1,3-bisfosfoglicerat kinaza

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Conversia 3-fosfogliceratului

3-fosfoglicerat <-> 2-fosfoglicerat. Enzima: fosfoglicerat mutaza

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Formarea PEP din 2-fosfoglicerat

2-fosfoglicerat <-> PEP. Enzima: enolaza

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Transformarea PEP in piruvat

PEP -> Piruvat + ATP. Enzima: piruvat kinaza (PK)

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Piruvatul

Molecula cheie a glicolizei. In conditii anaerobe este redus la lactat, in conditii aerobe este decarboxilat oxidativ la acetil-CoA.

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Importanta glicolizei

Sinteza de ATP (in absenta oxigenului), rol anabolic (intermediari folositi in biosinteza).

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Decarboxilarea oxidativa a piruvatului

Proces mitocondrial ireversibil. Piruvat + CoASH + NAD+ -> CO2 + acetil-CoA + NADH + H+

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Ce cai metabolice sunt interconectate prin reactiile catalizate de piruvat dehidrogenaza?

Glicoliza, GNG si biosinteza acizilor grasi.

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Ciclul Krebs

Secventa oxidativa de reactii prin care atomii de C din acetil-CoA sunt transformati in CO2. Are loc in mitocondrii si alimenteaza lantul respirator cu protoni. Cale amfibolica

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Prima reactie ciclul Krebs

Acetil-CoA + OAA -> Citrat. Enzima: citrat sintaza

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A doua reactie ciclul Krebs

Citrat -> izocitrat. Enzima: aconitaza

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Decarboxilarea izocitratului

Izocitrat + NAD+ -> a-cetoglutarat + NADH + H+ + CO2. Enzima: izocitrat dehidrogenaza

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Decarboxilarea oxidativa a a-CG

a-cetoglutarat + NAD+ + CoA -> succinil-CoA + NADH + H+ + CO2

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  1. Transformarea Succinil-CoA

Succinil-CoA + GDP + Pi -> succinat + CoASH + GTP. Enzima: succinil-CoA sintaza

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  1. Dehidrogenarea succinatului

Succinat + FAD -> fumarat + FADH2. Enzima: succinat dehidrogenaza (SDH)

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  1. Hidratarea fumaratului

Fumarat + H2O -> malat. Enzima: fumaraza

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  1. Dehidrogenarea malatului

Malat + NAD+ -> OAA + NADH + H+. Enzima: malat dehidrogenaza (MDH)

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Reacţii anaplerotice

reacţiile prin care se refac intermediarii ciclului Krebs

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Exemplu de reacţii anaplerotice

Piruvat + CO2 -> OAA

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Glicoliza aeroba

Glicoliza, apoi conversia piruvatului in acetil-CoA, apoi ciclul Krebs.

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Energie obținuta din Glicoliza

10 moli ATP

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Energie obținuta din Decarboxilarea oxidativă a piruvatului

......6 moli ATP

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Energie obținuta din Ciclul Krebs

24 moli ATP

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Study Notes

  • Metabolism is the totality of reactions and processes taking place in living organisms, including chemical and energetic transformations.
  • Metabolism has two aspects: catabolism and anabolism.

Catabolism

  • The totality of processes of degradation of cellular constituents into simpler substances.

Anabolism

  • The totality of synthesis processes.

Digestion and Absorption of Glucides

  • Main sources of glucides in food:
  • Starch (bread, potato)
  • Sucrose (sugar, sweets, fruits)
  • Lactose (milk)
  • Glucose, galactose, fructose, pentose (honey and fruits)
  • Absorbable form: monosaccharide

Glycolysis

  • The process of oxidizing glucose to lactate (anaerobic glycolysis) or pyruvate (aerobic glycolysis)
  • Takes place in all cells in the cytosol.
  • The main purpose is ATP synthesis
  • Has two main stages:

Main stages of Glycolysis

  • Conversion of glucose to triose phosphate, consumes 2 moles of ATP per glucose.
  • Conversion of triose phosphate to pyruvate, synthesizes 4 moles of ATP per glucose.

Reactions in Glycolysis:

  • Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, irreversible, using enzymes hexokinase, and Glc+ATP → Glucose-6-phosphate+ADP
  • Isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, reversible, using enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase, and Glc-6-P ↔ Fru-6-P
  • Conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, irreversible, Fru-6-P → Fru-1,6-P2
  • Catalyzed by phosphofructokinase-1 (FFK-1)
  • This step is the rate-limiting step as the first major control point of glycolysis
  • FFK-1 is an allosteric enzyme controlled by numerous positive (AMP, ADP, fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate) and negative (citrate, ATP) effectors and inhibits fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
  • Allows the simultaneous execution of 2 antagonistic pathways (glycolysis and GNG) at different rates.
  • The priority of a pathway is determined (fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase is the key enzyme in GNG)
  • Breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G-3-P), reversible.
  • Catalyzed by aldolase (aldolase A)
  • Isomerization of DHAP ↔ G-3-P
  • Catalyzed by triose phosphate isomerase
  • Oxidative phosphorylation of G-3-P to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, reversible.
  • Using G-3-P+ NAD+ +Pi ↔ 1,3-BPG+NADH+H+
  • Enzyme is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase-NAD+ - dependent
  • Takes place in several stages
  • In anaerobic conditions, NADH is reoxidized to NAD+ through the conversion of pyruvate to lactate to maintain the redox status of the cell
  • A deviation from the glycolytic pathway of 1,3-BPG occurs in the erythrocyte, through the synthesis of 2,3 - BPG, an allosteric effector of Hb
  • Transformation of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate, reversible.
  • This is the first phosphorylation reaction at the substrate level in glycolysis: 1,3-BPG+ADP ↔ 3-phosphoglycerate+ATP
  • ezima: 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate kinase
  • Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate, reversible: 3-phosphoglycerate ↔ 2-phosphoglycerate
  • Catalyzed by phosphoglycerate mutase
  • Formation of PEP from 2-phosphoglycerate
  • Enzyme is enolase, and the reaction is reversible: 2-phosphoglycerate ↔PEP
  • Transformation of PEP into pyruvate
  • Catalyzed by pyruvate kinase (PK), allosterically activated after glucide ingestion (inducible enzyme) and in the liver, by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
  • Inhibited by ATP, acetyl-CoA, and is a irreversible and strongly exergonic reaction.
  • Control point of glycolysis and the 2nd reaction of phosphorylation at the substrate level. PEP+ADP → Pyruvate+ATP

Pyruvate

  • Key molecule of glycolysis
  • The fate of pyruvate depends on intracellular conditions
  • Under anaerobic conditions, lactate is reduced, using Piruvat+NADH+H+ → Lactat+NAD+
  • The enzyme is LDH
  • Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA, the form in which it is accepted into the Krebs cycle, and NADH is oxidized in the respiratory chain.

Importance of Glycolysis:

  • It Synthesizes ATP (in the absence of oxygen)
  • It has an anabolic role because some glycolytic intermediates are used in the biosynthesis of other compounds: alanine from 3-phosphoglycerate, glycerol from DHAP, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, sialic acid and glycoproteins from PEP, etc

Oxidative Decarboxylation of Pyruvate

  • This is a mitochondrial, and irreversible process
  • Catalyzed by the multienzymatic complex of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), which includes 5 coenzymes and 3 enzymes

General Equation

  • Pyruvate+CoASH+NAD+ → CO2+acetyl-CoA + NADH + H+
  • NADH produced is oxidized in the respiratory chain generating 3 moles of ATP and avitaminosis B1
  • Reactions catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase interconnect to 3 metabolic pathways: glycolysis, GNG and fatty acid biosynthesis
  • The PDH complex is regulated covalently and allosterically.

Krebs Cycle

  • This is an oxidative sequence of reactions by which the C atoms in acetyl – CoA are transformed into CO

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