Memory Types: Episodic, Semantic, and Procedural

Types of Memory

• Episodic memory involves recalling specific events and experiences from the past (e.g., holidays).
• Episodic memory is often described as autobiographical memory, including details like what happened, where, and when.
• Episodic memory involves conscious recall and is associated with the right prefrontal cortex.
• Semantic memory involves general knowledge and understanding of the world (e.g., knowing the sky is blue).
• Semantic memory involves recalling facts, concepts, and ideas not tied to specific events.
• Semantic memory also involves conscious recall and is associated with the left prefrontal cortex.
• Procedural memory involves remembering how to perform motor skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).
• Procedural memory is often referred to as muscle memory and is essential for various tasks.
• Procedural memory is associated with the motor area and happens without conscious recall once encoded.

Encoding and Storage of Memories

• Memories are encoded and stored through a complex process involving the hippocampus, neocortex, and amygdala.
• Encoding involves transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in the brain.
• This process involves the initial registration of information in sensory systems.
• Information is then processed and transformed into a neural code for storage.
• Memories are stored in different regions of the brain based on the type of memory.
• Episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus, while semantic memories are stored in the neocortex.
• The amygdala is involved in storing emotional memories.
• Retrieval involves accessing stored memories and reactivating the neural code that was initially encoded.
• Retrieval can be triggered by cues or reminders associated with the memory.
• Recognition, cued recall, and free recall are examples of retrieval methods.
• New information can be encoded visually (images), acoustically (songs/music), or semantically (meaning).
• Semantic encoding involves understanding words and placing them in a sentence.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

• Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968.
• Suggests memory consists of three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Register

• This is the first stage of memory processing
• Involves immediate and automatic recording of sensory information from the environment.
• Includes separate components for visual (iconic) memory, auditory (echoic) memory, and tactile (haptic) memory.
• Has a very short duration (a few hundred milliseconds).
• Information is not stored unless attended to.

Short-Term Memory

• Second stage of memory processing.
• Involves temporary storage of information currently being attended to or actively processed.
• Has a limited capacity of about 7 plus or minus 2 items.
• Has a short duration of about 20 to 30 seconds unless the information is rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory.
• Believed to be located in the prefrontal cortex of the brain.

Long-Term Memory

• This is the final stage of memory processing
• Involves the storage of information that has been rehearsed or processed in short-term memory.
• Has an unlimited capacity.
• Can store information for an indefinite period.
• Believed to be located in various regions of the brain, including the hippocampus and the neocortex.
• Information passes through each store in a linear fashion
• Sensory information is briefly held in the sensory register before being transferred to the short-term memory
• Information rehearsed in the short-term memory is then transferred to the long-term memory for more permanent storage
• Has been criticized for oversimplifying the complex processes involved in memory and for failing to account for the role of attention

Features of Each Store Coding

• Sensory Register: Information is represented in the same form as it was received. Visual information is coded in the form of visual images, auditory information in the form of sound waves, and tactile information in the form of touch Sensations
• Short-Term Memory: information is encoded primarily in the form of sound or speech-based representations, known as acoustic coding however, other forms of coding such as Visual and semantic coding can also occur
• Long-Term Memory: information is encoded in various forms including semantic Visual and acoustic coding, This allows us to retrieve information based on its meaning appearance or sound

Features of Each Store Capacity

• Sensory register very large and it can hold a vast amount of sensory information simultaneously.
• Short-term memory: limited and it can only hold about seven plus or minus two items of information at a time
• Long-term memory: believed to be unlimited as it can store an indefinite amount of information over a lifetime

Features of Each Store Duration

• Sensory memory: very short ranging from a few hundred milliseconds to a few seconds
• Short-term memory: relatively short lasting only 20 to 30 seconds unless information is being rehearsed
• Long-term memory: also believed to be unlimited as some memories can last a lifetime while Others May fade over time

Serial Position Effect

• Refers to the tendency for people to remember items at the beginning and end of a sequence better than items in the middle.
• Demonstrated through the Primacy effect and the recency effect.

Primacy Effect

• Refers to the superior recall of items that appear at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

• Refers to the superior recall of items that appear at the end of a list.

Murdoch's Serial Position Curve Study (1962)

• Aimed to explore how the position of an item in a list affects the likelihood of its being recalled.
• Participants were presented with a list of words and asked to recall as many as they could immediately after.
• Results showed a typical serial position curve with a U-shaped pattern of recall performance.
• Participants were more likely to remember words presented at the beginning and the end of the list.
• The Primacy effect was explained by the idea that the first few items in the list were more likely to be transferred into long-term memory due to their extended rehearsal time, the recency effect was explained by the fact that the last few items were still fresh in the participants short-term memory when they were asked to recall them.

Strengths of the Research

• It was conducted in laboratory conditions therefore cause and effect is established.
• The independent variable is the position of the word in a list.
• The dependent variable is the probability that the word is recalled
• It supported by research with amnesiacs
• Research of amnesiacs has shown that people who can't store new long-term memories do not show a Primacy effect but they do show a recency effect
• This shows that Primacy effect is linked to long-term memory

Limitation

• Is an artificial task as the participants had to learn a list of words which isn't meaningful to them
• Findings are only telling us about the ability to recall lists of words not information that is Meaningful to us

Reconstructive Memory

• Developed by Sir Frederick Bartlett in the 1930s.
• Memory is not an exact recording of past events but rather a construction based on experiences, beliefs, and knowledge.
• When recalling a past event, we are reconstructing the memory based on our current perspective, knowledge, and beliefs.

Effort After Meaning

• People try to make sense of new information and integrate it with existing knowledge and beliefs
• People have a natural tendency to try and make sense of new information and integrate it with their existing knowledge and beliefs
• This process involves actively processing information and actively trying to find meaning in it
• Can influence how we remember events for example if we're presented with information that is inconsistent with our existing knowledge or beliefs we may try to make it fit by altering our memory of the event
• Key aspect of the theory of reconstructive memory is the role of schema in memory Construction
• Schema is a mental framework or organizational structure that helps us to process and remember information schemas can influence what we pay attention to how we interpret new information and how we remember events
• If we have a schema for a typical dinner party, we may remember details that fit with this schema more easily than details that do not fit
• Memory is not a passive process of retrieving stored information

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts Study

• In 1932, Sir Frederick Bartlett conducted the War of the Ghosts study.
• The study's aim was to explore how cultural schemas influence memory recall.
• Participants were presented with "The War of the Ghosts," a Native American legend unfamiliar to them.
• Participants recalled the story to another person after varying time intervals.
• Bartlett selected a story from a different culture to avoid familiarity bias.
• Over time, participants' recollections became increasingly distorted.
• Participants altered the story to align with their own cultural schemas.
• Unfamiliar words and phrases were replaced with familiar ones.
• Details that didn't fit existing knowledge and beliefs were omitted or altered.
• It demonstrated the importance of schemas in memory recall.
• The study supported the idea that memory is a constructive process.
• Memory is influenced by pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, and cultural background.

Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy

• Interference, context, and false memories can affect memory accuracy.

Interference Types

• New information interferes with recalling previously learned information.
• Proactive interference: Previously learned information interferes with recalling new information.
• Retroactive interference: New information interferes with recalling previously learned information.

Contextual Cues

• Context influences memory retrieval.
• A memory is easier to recall if the individual is in the same physical or emotional state as when it was encoded.

False Memories

• Individuals recall something that didn't happen or remember an event differently.
• False memories can be caused by: Leading suggestions, suggestive language, incorporation of misinformation.
• An individual's expectations, beliefs, and cultural background can influence false memories.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation and perception are related processes for understanding the world.
• Sensation: Receiving and detecting sensory input from the environment through sensory organs.
• It involves registering stimuli through sensory receptors and transmitting them to the brain.
• Perception: Organizing and interpreting sensory information into meaningful patterns and representations.
• Perception uses higher-level cognitive processes like attention, memory, and interpretation.
• Perception enables understanding and making sense of sensory information.
• Sensation refers to the detection of sensory stimuli from the environment.
• Perception involves higher-level cognitive processes that organize and interpret sensory information.
• Some psychologists debate whether the difference between sensation and perception is clear-cut.

Monocular Depth Cues

• Monocular depth cues help perceive depth and distance using one eye.
• Height in plane involves the placement of objects in a scene, objects higher up in the visual field are perceived as further away.
• Relative size uses the size of familiar objects as a reference. Smaller objects are perceived as further away.
• Occlusion uses overlapping objects to determine relative distance. Covered objects appear further.
• Linear perspective shows parallel lines converging in the distance, an example being looking down a road.

Binocular Depth Cues

• Binocular depth cues rely on the coordination of both eyes.
• Retinal disparity: The slight difference in the image received by each eye, creating a 3D image. The greater the disparity, the closer the object is perceived.
• Convergence: The inward movement of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects. The brain estimates distance based on the degree of eye convergence.
• Binocular depth cues allow accurate judgment of distances, sizes, and positions.

Gibson's Direct Theory of Perception

• Emphasizes direct perception, where the visual system directly perceives and interprets sensory information.
• No mental interference or processing is required.
• The real world provides sufficient information for direct pickup by sensory systems.
• The environment presents affordances, opportunities for action directly perceivable.
• Affordances are perceived directly without inference, and the information needed is in the environment.
• Motion parallax provides information about relative distance and motion.
• Environmental information is invariant, meaning it remains the same regardless of the observer's position.
• Motion parallax provides direct, reliable information about the environment without mental interference.
• Example: Objects closer move faster on a train than further objects.

Visual Illusions

• Perceptual phenomena where perception doesn't match physical reality.
• Ambiguity: Some illusions occur due to ambiguity of visual information.
• Misinterpreted depth cues: Illusions due to ambiguous or misleading depth cues.
• Fiction: Brains fill in gaps in visual information.

Size Constancy

• Perception of an object's size remains constant even when its distance changes.
• Can lead to illusions when perceived size conflicts with physical reality.
• Overall, illusions occur due to complex interactions between sensory organs, neural processing, and past experiences.

Specific Visual Illusions

• Ponzo illusion: Top line appears longer than the bottom line due to converging lines, despite being the same length.
• Müller-Lyer illusion: Line with outward arrows appears longer than the one with inward arrows.
• Rubin vase illusion: Image perceived as either a vase or two faces.
• Ames room illusion: A specially designed room makes people appear different sizes.
• Kanizsa triangle illusion: Perception of a triangle that isn't actually there.
• Necker cube illusion: Wireframe cube perceived in two different orientations.

Gregory's Constructivist Theory of Perception

• The brain interprets and makes sense of sensory information.
• Perception involves making inferences from visual cues and past experience.
• Contrasts with Gibson's idea that perception is innate.
• Visual cues are information received through senses.
• Visual cues alone aren't enough for full perception.
• The brain uses past experience and knowledge to make inferences.
• Inferences aren't always accurate and can be influenced by biases.
• The theory is supported by research in different cultures.
• A strength of this theory is that it's supported by studies that show people perceive things differently depending on their culture
• A weakness however is that despite Gregory's Theory being supported by understanding of visual Illusions they are still unusual examples of perception by looking at visual Illusions they are designed to fool us so they don't really offer a full explanation of how visual Illusions work in the real world it also doesn't offer a full explanation of how visual Illusions begin in the first place there is a lot of research that suggests babies have an innate ability to recognize faces and depth perception therefore this cannot be built up over time

Factors Affecting Perception

• Perceptual set is influenced by expectations, past experiences, and context.
• Culture: Different cultures have different perceptual experiences.
• Motivation: Influences what we attend to and how we interpret stimuli.
• Motion: The motion of objects affects our perception.
• Expectation: Influences how we perceive stimuli.

Gilchrist and Nesberg Study of Motivation

• Examined how motivation influences perceptual set.
• Aim: Determining the effect of food deprivation on perception of food-related pictures.
• Experimental group: 26 undergraduates went without food for 20 hours.
• Control group: Ate normally.
• Participants were shown slides of a meal and adjusted the lighting to match previous brightness.
• Food-deprived participants adjusted the pictures more than those who had eaten.
• Conclusion: Hunger is a motivating factor that affects perception.
• A strength is there is support from similar studies
• A limitation is that depriving people of food for 20 hours is unethical even though they hadn't opted in they may not have realised how their body May react to the lack of food or may have wanted to eat but felt pressured to continue with the study finally another limitation is that the task is not like one that is representative of everyday life this decreases the validity of the study

Bruner and Minturn Study of Perceptual Set

• Investigated how expectations influence perceptual set.
• Aim: Investigate how perceptual sets can affect our ability to recognize letters and numbers
• Participants were presented with ambiguous stimuli (a letter B that was split so it looked like the number 13).
• Group 1: Letters-test, numbers-test, mixed-test.
• Group 2: Counterbalanced order.
• Results: Primed letters group identified stimuli as letters faster. Those primed with numbers identified them as numbers faster.

Study on Expectations and Stimuli

• Study results showed participants' interpretation of stimuli was based on expectations.

Strengths of the Research

• The study was carefully designed and controlled, with a clear aim and methodology.
• The study used a within-subjects design to control for individual differences.
• Clear and consistent results supported the hypothesis about the role of perceptual sets.

Weaknesses of the Research

• Small sample size limits the generalizability of the results.
• Use of artificial stimuli affects ecological validity.
• Participants were volunteers and may not fully represent the population.
• The study did not account for individual differences in cognitive abilities and perceptual biases.

Early Brain Development

• Brain development begins in the womb and continues through adolescence.
• The brain develops from a neural tube into distinct regions with specialized functions.
• The brainstem controls essential functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
• The thalamus processes sensory information and relays it to appropriate brain regions.
• The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance.
• The cortex is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like attention, memory, and decision-making.
• Different brain regions mature at different rates during development.
• Children develop from simple reflexive behaviors to complex, voluntary actions.
• Cortex development allows for abstract thinking and planning.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature refers to genetic factors, while nurture refers to environmental factors in development.
• Genes determine physical traits and influence cognitive abilities and personality traits.
• Environmental factors like upbringing, culture, and education shape cognitive, emotional, and social development.
• Early childhood experiences, such as parental warmth, significantly impact cognitive and emotional development.
• Genetic factors can interact with environmental factors, such as stress, to influence mental health.
• Prenatal factors such as smoking, infections like rubella, and alcohol exposure can affect a baby's development.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

• Piaget's theory outlines four cognitive stages with distinct changes in thinking and reasoning.
• The sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) involves developing sensory and motor abilities and object permanence.
• The pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years) involves symbolic thinking, language skills, and egocentrism.
• The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) involves logical thinking and understanding concrete concepts like conservation.
• The formal operational stage (11 years and above) involves abstract thinking and logical reasoning about hypothetical situations.
• Assimilation is incorporating new information into existing schemas.
• Accommodation is modifying existing schemas to fit new information.
• Children actively construct their understanding through experiences and interactions.
• Educators should consider children's cognitive abilities at each stage.
• Developmentally appropriate activities should align with cognitive abilities at each stage.
• Progress through the 4 stages is partially determined by age appropriateness.
• Educators should be aware that biological readiness is required before an individual can learn new skills effectively.
• Children can progress at different pace and educators should be aware of this.

McGarrigal and Donaldson's Naughty Teddy Study

• Investigated children's understanding of conservation, following up on Piaget's research.
• Piaget's original study involved showing children two identical glasses with the same amount of water.
• Water was poured from one glass into a taller, thinner glass, making it appear as if the amount of water had increased.
• Children under seven tended to say the taller glass had more water, indicating a lack of conservation understanding in Piaget's original study.
• Children over seven were more likely to understand the amount of water hadn't changed.
• The McGarrigal and Donaldson study aimed to see if accidental change would alter a child's reaction.
• 80 children from Edinburgh, Scotland, participated; 41 were nursery age (mean age 4 years, 10 months), and 40 were primary age (mean age 5 years, 10 months).
• Children were introduced to a "naughty Teddy" who might mess up their toys in a game.
• The teddy "accidentally" pushed counters, making rows appear different in length.
• Children were asked if the rows had more, less, or the same amount before and after the teddy's action.
• 68% of children gave the correct answer when the teddy disrupted the rows, versus 41% when the change was deliberate.
• Primary-aged children conserved more effectively than nursery-aged children.
• The traditional method of testing conservation underestimated children's abilities.
• Many nursery-aged children conserved at a younger age than Piaget originally stated in his original experiment.
• A weakness was using primary-aged children from one school, potentially affecting results, due to specific teaching or language development.
• Another weakness: children might have been distracted by the teddy, not noticing the changes and therefore not conserving
• A strength: challenges Piaget's research and indicating flaws in his method.

Hughes' Policemen Doll Study

• Designed to build on Piaget's Three Mountain Study in the original paper.
• In the Three Mountain Study, children struggled to choose pictures showing the doll's perspective until age seven.
• The aim of the Hughes study was to investigate children's reduction of egocentricity.
• 30 children aged three and a half to five years, from schools in Edinburgh, participated.
• Children were shown a model street scene with a toy policeman and a doll.
• The experimenter asked the child to hide the doll from a second policeman's view.
• The task was conducted twice to ensure the child understood the setup before the actual experiment.
• Children under three tended to hide the doll from their own viewpoint, showing a lack of understanding.
• By age four, 90% of children could successfully hide the doll from the second policeman's view.
• Children between three and a half and five years old can understand another person's perspective.
• Especially if the situation is familiar and the task is clear.
• The task in this study made more sense to children compared to Piaget's original version.
• Hughes' task was similar to everyday games children would encounter in real life.
• Hughes took time to ensure children understood the task and questions before starting.
• Researchers may have unknowingly hinted at the correct answer.
• Shows credibility of Piaget's original work this shows that there are omissions on the way he set up the research and the way he worded some of his questions.

Effects of Learning on Development: Dweck's Mindset Theory

• Dweck's mindset theory proposes two mindsets influencing learning and development: fixed and growth.
• Individuals with a fixed mindset believe abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable.
• Those with a fixed mindset may avoid challenges and give up easily.
• Individuals with a growth mindset believe abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort.
• People with a growth mindset embrace challenges, persist, and see failures as growth opportunities.
• Mindsets can be influenced by praise and feedback like effort.
• Praising intelligence can reinforce a fixed mindset.
• Praising effort and hard work reinforces a growth mindset.
• Self-efficacy, belief in one's ability to succeed, also plays a role in learning.
• People with a growth mindset tend to have higher self-efficacy.
• Those with a fixed mindset may have lower self-efficacy.
• Teachers can promote a growth mindset by emphasizing effort and learning.
• Teachers can enhance self-efficacy by providing opportunities for success and achievable goals.

Praise and Self-Efficacy

• Research suggests praise and self-efficacy improve motivation.
• Praise can be a reward, needing to be honest, sincere, and deserved.
• Past experiences impact self-efficacy; negative ones can lower it.
• High self-efficacy students are more likely to exert effort in tasks.

Learning Styles

• Learning styles involve preferred learning and information processing methods.
• Verbalizers learn through spoken or written words, enjoying lectures, discussions, and reading.
• Visualizers learn through visual/spatial information, excelling at tasks involving mental imagery.
• Kinesthetic learners learn through hands-on experience.
• Some researchers suggest there could be up to 27 types of learners and it would not be possible to Focus Education materials to the needs of all different types of learners
• Daniel Willingham criticizes learning styles and emphasizes evidence-based practices.
• Willingham advocates for clear explanations, feedback, practice, and retrieval to improve learning.
• He also highlights building students' background knowledge as crucial across subjects.

Research Methods: Hypothesis Formulation

• The null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis are used to test claims about a population.
• The null hypothesis states no significant difference or effect exists (a statement of no effect).
• The alternative hypothesis states a significant difference or effect exists (what the researcher supports).
• Researchers collect data and use tests to see if there's enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
• If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.

Types of Variables in Experimental Research

• Independent variable: manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect (the cause variable).
• Dependent variable: measured in response to changes in the independent variable (the effect variable).
• Extraneous variables: may affect the dependent variable but aren't of interest, confounding results.
• Researchers control extraneous variables through random assignment and other methods.

Sampling Methods in Research

• Target population: the group a researcher wants to study.
• Sample: a smaller subset of the target population selected for the study.
• Sampling: the process of selecting a sample from the target population.
• Random Sampling
  • selecting individuals without bias.
  • Strengths
  • Most unbiased, equal chance of being selected.
  • Minimizes bias and is representative, easy to implement.
  • Weaknesses
  • May not be feasible for large populations, can be time-consuming.
  • Could result in a small sample size.
• Opportunity Sampling
  • Selecting individuals based on availability and willingness to participate.
  • Strengths - Easy to implement, requires minimal resources. - Useful when the target population is difficult to access, practical.
  • Weaknesses - May not represent the target population, biased samples. - Difficult to control extraneous variables.
• Systematic Sampling
  • Selecting individuals at regular intervals. - Strengths
    • Easy to understand, suitable for large/spread-out populations.
    • More efficient than random sampling. - Weaknesses
    • Could introduce bias if there's a pattern in the list.
    • May not be representative if the list isn't complete.
• Stratified Sampling
  • Dividing the target population into subgroups based on characteristics, then sampling each subgroup.
  • Strengths - Ensures representation of each subgroup. - Can reduce bias and is more representative. - Allows for comparisons between subgroups.
  • Weaknesses - Requires accurate population information. - May not be practical for small or homogeneous populations.
• Principles of sampling
  • Representativeness - a sample is considered representative if it accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population from which it was drawn
  • Sample Size
    • size of the sample should be large enough to provide accurate estimates of the population parameters of Interest
  • Randomness
    • involves selecting individuals or units from the population using a random procedure such as drawing names out of a hat or using a random number generator
  • Sampling Frame
    • is the list of all individuals or units in the population from which the sample is drawn it should be comprehensive and up-to-date
  • Data Quality
    • sampling can affect the quality of the data collected it is important to use appropriate sampling techniques to reduce the risk of bias and ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results

Designing Research: Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods

• Quantitative Methods

  • experimental method involves the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable
    • independent groups design is suitable for testing the effectiveness of different interventions
      • strengths eliminates the problem of order effects
      • weaknesses: individual differences can be confounding
    • repeated measures design is suitable for testing the effects of one treatment on the same group
      • strengths: reduces the individual differences
      • weaknesses: the risk of order effects
    • match pair's design
      • strengths: reduces the individual differences as a confounding variable

• Laboratory Experiments

  • conducted in a contract environment such as a laboratory they are suitable for studying cause and effect relationships

  -Strengths:

  • they have high control over variables they allow for the manipulation of independent variables -Weaknesses: - they may lack ecological validity and they may be subject to demand characteristics

• Field and Natural Experiments

  • conducted in real-world settings they are suitable for studying real-world phenomena

    -Strengths:
      -   have high ecological validity they have a greater generalizability to real world situations and they're less prone to demand characteristics
    -Weaknesses:
                  - it's difficult to control for extraneous variables qualitative interview and studies
    

• interviews are a method of connecting data through one-on-one conversations between the researcher and the participant suitable for gaining in-depth insights into individual experiences and attitudes strengths are that it allows for in-depth exploration

• Qualitative methods

  • case studies
    • involve in-depth investigation of an individual group or organization they're suitable for studying unique or rare cases and gaining in-depth insights into complex phenomena

• Correlation - correlations can reveal important relationships one of the weaknesses of correlations also only measure the strength between variables - correlations only measure the strength correlations can be affected by outliers

Research Procedures and Extraneous Variables

• Standardized procedures
  • essential to ensure that experimental conditions are the same for all participants this means that every participant is treated in the same way
• Randomization
  • involves assigning participants to a different conditions or groups randomly to ensure that each group is similar

Planning and Conducting Research

• Reliability
  • should take steps to ensure that their research methods are consistent and produce stable results over the time
• Validity
  • researchers should take steps to ensure that their research methods are accurately measuring what they are intending to measure

Ethical Considerations

• Informed consent - must be informed about the purpose
• Confidentiality - personal information must be kept confidential
• Protection from harm - must not be exposed to any physical or psychological harm during the research
• Deception - should be avoided in psychological research
• Debriefing
• Participants must be debriefed after the study by the researchers

Data Handling

• Quantitative data - refers to numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically
• Qualitative data
  • on the other hand refers to non-numerical data that is obtained through observation interviews and other unstructured research methods
• Primary data - researchers directly from the source
• Secondary data
  • is already being connecting and analyzed by someone else for a different purpose
• Normal Distribution or called gaussian distribution or bell curve distribution.
  • symmetry a normal distribution is symmetric around the mean -bell-shaped curve a normal distribution is represented by a bell-shaped curve