Memory and Brain Areas
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Questions and Answers

What role does the phonological loop play in information processing?

  • It permanently stores long-term memories.
  • It solely processes visual information.
  • It helps in repeating and memorizing verbal information. (correct)
  • It is only involved in short-term memory retention.

What are the two potential systems contained within the visuospatial sketchpad?

  • Auditory and visual systems.
  • Short-term and long-term systems.
  • Visual and spatial systems. (correct)
  • Neural and cognitive systems.

Which part of the brain is primarily associated with the consolidation and storage of long-term memories?

  • Brainstem.
  • Cerebellum.
  • Prefrontal cortex. (correct)
  • Hippocampus.

What distinguishes long-term memory from short-term memory?

<p>Long-term memory can hold information for extensive periods. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic storage capacity of long-term memory?

<p>It is virtually unlimited. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of long-term memory involves conscious recall of information?

<p>Explicit memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What influences the strength of connections in long-term memory?

<p>The depth of information processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is long-term memory fundamentally maintained?

<p>By stable and permanent changes in neural connections. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes telegraphic speech used by toddlers?

<p>It omits unnecessary words. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the concept of infant-directed speech?

<p>It includes exaggeration in sounds and facial expressions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do infants primarily respond when adults use infant-directed speech?

<p>They show increased attention to the speaker. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Noam Chomsky's theory of language, what does the brain contain?

<p>A language acquisition device with universal grammar. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What may be a purpose of using infant-directed speech according to research?

<p>To engage the infant and facilitate interaction. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of language learning is emphasized in the approach of Chinese children compared to American children?

<p>Noticing relationships and actions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of speech primarily lacks articles and grammatical correctness?

<p>Telegraphic speech. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might an adult use a high-pitched voice when talking to infants?

<p>To help the infant differentiate sounds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory allows us to perform tasks without being able to explain how we do them?

<p>Procedural memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do babies learn to crawl and walk, according to the information provided?

<p>By practicing and doing it themselves (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of classical conditioning mentioned in the content?

<p>Associating a sound with food (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of interference propose as a reason for memory loss?

<p>Memories become confused when similar ones are encoded (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of information is forgotten within the first hour?

<p>56% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'memory decay' in psychology?

<p>Unused memories fade over time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does priming have on behavior?

<p>It activates knowledge and influences behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor contributing to forgetting?

<p>Frequent practice of the learned skill (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect contributes to the clarity of certain memories, making them seem vividly captured in the mind?

<p>The distinctiveness and emotionality of the events (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of recoding during memory encoding involve?

<p>Transforming information into a comprehensible form (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes how memories are stored?

<p>Modified and reconstructed during recall (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to information in short-term memory if it is deemed important?

<p>It is transferred to long-term memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key difference between short-term and long-term memory storage?

<p>Long-term memory can hold more information but may not be immediately accessible (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does memory encoding alter the information received?

<p>It filters and modifies information for storage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do memories generally degrade after being stored in short-term memory?

<p>They become less vivid over time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about Simon Reinhard is true within the context provided?

<p>He holds records for memorizing specific types of information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main principles of learning theory regarding language development?

<p>Reinforcement and association play a fundamental role. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many new words do children typically learn between the ages of 18 months and 5 years?

<p>10 new words every day (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of cooing in infants?

<p>To practice vocalization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the generative aspect of language imply?

<p>Language can be combined in new ways to express original ideas. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does social pragmatics suggest language plays in human interactions?

<p>Language is a tool for communication and cooperation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants typically begin intentional babbling?

<p>7 months (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What example illustrates generativity in language?

<p>A child saying 'swimmed' instead of 'swam'. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the babbling of a one-year-old child?

<p>Consonant-vowel repeated sequences (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Gesturing in infants is significant because it:

<p>Indicates future speech abilities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of language development is emphasized through social interaction?

<p>Language involves pre-linguistic skills for communication. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of children's ability to make linguistic repairs?

<p>It shows awareness of others’ communication needs. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age can infants typically understand more words than they can say?

<p>10 months (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to children learning the language spoken around them?

<p>Environmental influence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which word do infants often understand first by about 6 months of age?

<p>Their own name (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one common gesture infants can perform around 9-12 months?

<p>Wave goodbye (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might some parents choose to teach sign language to infants?

<p>To enhance the ability to communicate through gestures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Flashbulb memories

Memories of highly emotional and distinct events, which seem vividly recalled, but often inaccurate in detail.

Memory encoding

The process of transforming sensory information into a form usable by the memory system.

Memory storage

Storing memories, not as exact copies, but as modified and reconstructed during recall.

Short-term memory

A temporary store for information, constantly changing, and is needed when encoding.

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Long-term memory

A long-lasting storage of important information, with capacity for much more than short-term memory.

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Memory retrieval

The process of accessing stored memories.

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Memory consolidation

The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories and optimize memory storage.

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Selective encoding

The mind only focusing on selected details; during high emotion, details are encoded and kept in memory.

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Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that processes and temporarily stores verbal information, playing a key role in language learning and speech production.

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information, important for spatial awareness and problem solving.

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What are the two subsystems of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?

The Visuospatial Sketchpad is divided into two systems: one for spatial information and processes (e.g., navigating a room) and another for visual information and processes (e.g., remembering the color of a car).

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

A memory system with seemingly unlimited capacity that stores information for extended periods, ranging from days to years.

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How are LTMs formed?

Long-term memories are formed through permanent changes in neural connections within the brain, with stronger connections for more deeply processed memories.

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What are the two types of LTM?

Long-term memory is categorized into explicit memory (conscious recall) and implicit memory (unconscious recall).

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Explicit Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of facts, events, and personal experiences.

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Implicit Memory

A type of long-term memory that involves unconscious recall of skills, habits, and conditioned responses.

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What is procedural memory?

It allows us to perform complex tasks, even without conscious awareness of the steps involved. Think of riding a bike or playing a video game.

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What is classical conditioning?

It's the unconscious learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring response. For example, associating a bell with food causing salivation.

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What is priming?

It's the influence of recent experiences on behavior, often without conscious awareness. Think of seeing the word 'kindness' and acting more kindly afterwards.

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How quickly do we forget?

Forgetting is a natural part of life. We forget a significant amount of information within days. Around 56% is lost after an hour, 66% after a day, and 75% after six days.

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What is memory decay theory?

It proposes that memories fade with time if not frequently retrieved. Think of memories like traces on the brain that slowly disappear.

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What is interference theory?

It suggests that similar memories interfere with each other, making retrieval harder. Think of trying to remember a phone number when another one is close to it.

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What is forgetting?

Forgetting is a natural and essential process for memory function. It allows us to prioritize important information and filter out less relevant details.

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What is amnesia?

It's a significant loss of memory, which can be caused by trauma, disease, or psychological factors. It can affect different types of memory, including episodic, procedural, and semantic memories.

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Cooing

Early vocalizations made by infants, characterized by gurgling and musical sounds. It helps infants practice vocalization and learn the rhythm of conversation.

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Babbling

Intentional vocalizations infants make around 7 months, consisting of repeated consonant-vowel sounds like 'ma-ma-ma' or 'da-da-da'. It's practice for making specific sounds.

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Gesturing

Using body movements to communicate before speaking. Infants use gestures to express needs and ideas.

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Receptive Language

The ability to understand language, even before being able to speak it. Infants can understand words and phrases even if they can't say them.

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First Words

The initial words infants learn, typically their own name, followed by common words like 'bottle', 'mama', and 'doggie'.

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Shaking Head 'No'

Infants develop the ability to shake their head 'no' as a way to communicate their refusal or disagreement.

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Responding to Requests

Infants begin responding to verbal requests, such as 'wave bye-bye' or 'blow a kiss', demonstrating language comprehension.

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Language Development

The process of acquiring the ability to understand and produce language. It starts with cooing and babbling, and progresses to understanding words, responding to requests, and eventually speaking.

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Telegraphic Speech

Early language development stage where children use short, two-word sentences, omitting unnecessary words like 'the' or 'a'.

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Infant-Directed Speech

Adults use exaggerated intonation, high pitch, and clear pronunciation when speaking to babies, aiding in language development.

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Universal Grammar

Noam Chomsky proposed that humans have an innate ability to learn language; this is a set of rules common to all languages.

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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Chomsky's theory suggests that humans have a mental faculty, the LAD, responsible for processing and acquiring language.

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Nature Approach to Language

The belief that our capacity for language is largely innate (from birth) and not solely learned through experience.

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What is the difference between telegraphic speech and adult speech?

Telegraphic speech is simplified, using short phrases without grammatical complexities, while adult speech is more complex and grammatically correct.

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Why do adults use 'baby talk' with infants?

Infant-directed speech uses exaggerated intonation and clear pronunciation to aid language development and attract the infant's attention.

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What is a key difference between a 'nature' and 'nurture' view of language development?

Nature emphasizes innate abilities for language, while 'nurture' focuses on learning language through interactions and experiences.

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Language Learning: Nurture

The idea that language is primarily learned through interaction with the environment, such as hearing and imitating others, receiving reinforcement, and observing.

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Language Generativity

The ability to create an infinite number of unique sentences and ideas using a finite set of rules and procedures.

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Social Pragmatics

The view that language is not just a cognitive skill but a social tool for communication, cooperation, and influencing others.

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Language as Cooperation

The theory that language initially arose from a need for cooperation, communication, and shared understanding.

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Pre-Linguistic Skills

Skills that infants use before developing language, such as pointing and gesturing, to communicate their needs and help others.

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Linguistic Repairs

When children adjust their language to make themselves understood, recognizing when others don't understand them.

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Early Language Development

Between 18 months and 5 years, children experience rapid language development, learning up to 10 new words each day.

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Language as a Tool

Language is a versatile tool humans use to communicate, connect, influence, and share information.

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Study Notes

Memory

  • Brain Areas: Certain brain areas are specialized for various types of memories. Activity in different lobes of the cerebral cortex relates to memory formation.
  • Temporal Lobe: Important for sensory memory.
  • Frontal Lobe: Associated with short- and long-term memory.
  • Occipital and Temporal Lobes: Associated with sensation, involved in sensory memory.
  • Sensory Memory: Briefest memory form, no storage capability. Temporary holding cell for sensory input; holds information for a few seconds at most.
  • Three Stages: Learning/memory process includes encoding, storage, and retrieval (Melton, 1963).
    • Encoding: Initial learning of information.
    • Storage: Maintaining information over time.
    • Retrieval: Accessing information when needed.
  • Encoding: Converting information into a form for storage that the brain can store indefinitely. This process is like saving a file on a computer.
  • Memory Errors: Forgetting and misremembering (false recall or false recognition) can occur.
  • Retrieval: Accessing information when needed and recall and recognition are used for retrieving information.
  • Memory Storage: Memories are modified and reconstructed, not exact replicas. Encoding (through short- or long-term memory) is required. Some information may be lost over time.
  • Long-Term Memory: Stores information for extended periods. Has a larger capacity compared to short-term memory, but may not be immediately accessible
  • Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage of information. Information is constantly deteriorating, but transfer to long-term memory is possible for important/useful information.. Long-term memory consolidation is crucial for accurate information storing in long-term memory. The more soon after encoding information is retrieved, the more accurate it is; as the time between encoding and retrieval increases, accuracy decreases., also known as working memory.
  • Processes: Includes recall and recognition, which require different methods for accessing information.
  • Serial Recall: Recalling items in order they occur.
  • Free Recall: Recalling items in any order.
  • Cued Recall: Recalling with prompts or cues.
  • Retrieval Failure: Inability to recall stored information. Reasons include decay (natural loss), interference (other information blocks recall), and problems with retrieval cues.
  • Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (echoic, iconic, haptic).
  • Miller's Magic Number: Short-term memory's capacity for about 7 items (+/-2).
  • Chunking: Grouping items to increase capacity. Improves performance in sequential memory tasks.

Language

  • Language: A communication system using symbols to create meaning.
  • Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound in a language.
  • Morpheme: Smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language.
  • Semantics: Rules for deriving meaning from morphemes.
  • Syntax: Rules governing sentence structure.
  • Pragmatics: Social aspects of language use.
  • Contextual Information: Surrounding information, including gestures and expression.
  • Language Development: Language develops through various stages starting before birth (hearing, recognizing the mother's voice and sound).
  • Infant-directed speech: "baby talk"; used by adults when speaking to babies to make the language easier to understand and the sounds more easily processed by infants.
  • First words: Tend to be nouns for many languages, while some may focus on verbs.

Critical Period for Learning Language

  • Critical Period: Time in which learning is most frequent and effective, important for acquiring language.

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