Mediterranean World: City-States & Philosophy

• The Mediterranean world experienced political, economic, and social changes that led to organizational innovations.
• Patriarchy was the norm, with free adult males in control.
• Violent upheavals triggered new migrations and freed many from Assyrian and Persian domination.
• Borderland societies emerged in the Northern Levant, Anatolian coast, and Aegean/Mediterranean islands.
• New city-states formed, restoring order in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE.
• Independent and self-governing city-states like Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens emerged.
• Corinth founded Syracuse in Sicily, Sparta founded Thera which then founded Cyrene.
• Athens, though small, became a center of wealth and power.
• Plato, witnessing the decline of his time, envisioned the perfect city in "The Republic."
• Plato believed enlightened philosopher-kings should rule.

Philosophy

• Aristotle, a student of Plato, emphasized understanding through facts and deduction.
• Alexander the Great's eastern conquests introduced Buddhism.
• Pyrrho of Elis preached that life is full of suffering and advocated renouncing passion to achieve a state of calm (ataraxia).
• Pyrrho's teachings evolved into Epicurean philosophy, emphasizing happiness through simple living.

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic World

• In the 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great led a violent military campaign to the Indus River Valley.
• Mahayana Buddhism developed in Northern South Asia during this period.
• The Silk Road, a 5,000-mile trade route connecting East Asia to the Mediterranean, began.

Hellenism

• Hellenism refers to shared Greek culture, including a common language, art, academic disciplines, entertainment, and politics.
• Phillip II used the Sarissa spear (18-22 ft) in his military.
• Phillip II also used Companion cavalry, and elite infantry and cavalry.
• Phillip II's Royal Hypasists (500 men infantry) were part of his military.
• At the Battle of Chaeronea, Phillip defeated Athens and Thebes, gaining control over Greece.
• In 336 BCE, Phillip II was assassinated by Persians, and Alexander the Great, his son, became king at age 20.
• Olympias, Alexander’s mother, claimed Zeus was his father.
• Alexander the Great, with a Hellenistic hyperfixation, supported intermarriage between Macedonians and foreigners, aiding cultural diffusion.
• Alexander's relationship to Hephaestion mirrored his parents, Zeus to Olympias and Alexander to Roxana.
• Alexander's army refused to advance past the Indus River Valley.
• Hephaestion was Alexander's "partner" who was promoted to Chiliarch (commander of a 1000 men) in 330 BCE.
• After Hephaestion's death, Alexander was depressed.
• Alexander crushed the Theban Rebellion and sold the survivors into slavery.
• Alexander invaded Persia to avenge his father.
• At the Battle of Issus (333 BCE), Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia, utilizing sneaky maneuvers.
• Alexander won a decisive victory at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) against a 250,000-man Persian army.
• Alexander used feigned retreats to defeat the Persians.
• Darius fled and was later killed by his cousin.
• Alexander gained Persian trust by dressing in traditional Persian style and practicing proskynesis (kissing limbs to show respect for the ruler).
• Macedonians disliked Alexander's adoption of Persian customs.
• Alexander seized wealth from Persian palaces and redistributed it across the Mediterranean, fostering economic expansion.
• Alexander died in 323 BCE in Babylon.

Successors and Succeeding Kingdoms

• Alexander's empire was divided among his military generals.
• Constant warfare ensued as they grabbed power, creating a balance of threats, alliances, treaties, and diplomacy.
• Seleucus (Seleucid) controlled Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.
• Antigonus (Antigona) ruled Macedonia.
• Ptolemy (Ptolemaic) controlled Egypt and Judea.
• Ptolemy's wife, Berenice of Egypt, ruled in his place, until Cleopatra VII.
• Lysimachus was another successor.
• Unification of territory under Alexander’s successors created a common culture of philosophical/ political thinking, secular/ academic disciplines, bowdlerized entertainment, and social life practices.
• Koine Greek (Common Greek) became the lingua franca, facilitating diplomacy, business, and cultural exchange.
• Cultural syncretism occurred, blending gods like the Egyptian demi-gods.
• Cosmopolitan cities with multi-ethnic communities emerged.
• A new political style emerged with distant, charismatic, godlike kings.
• Demetrius Polorcetes, ruler of Macedonia, exemplifies this new political style.
• Alexandria in Egypt is an example of a cosmopolitan city.
• New religious beliefs and rituals, such as baptism and salvation, were practiced.

Philosophies

• Philosophies focused on the individual's place in the world.
• Cynicism (Diogenes) rejected social norms and emphasized individual desires.
• Epicureanism (Epicurus) promoted an intellectual community (The Garden) focused on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.
• Stoicism (Zeno of Cyprus) encouraged acceptance of the natural order and indifference to external factors.

Religions outside of Greece

• The Cult of Isis was revived and infused with Hellenism, rewriting the story of Osiris and Isis.
• The Eleusinian Mysteries, dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, offered personal salvation, spiritual enlightenment, and a blessed afterlife through a series of rituals and sacred performances.
• Spring & Summer = Demeter with Persephone
• Fall & Winter = Demeter without Persephone
• The Eleusinian Mysteries culminated with a secret vision of a promised afterlife in the Telesterion (sacred hall).

Economics

• Large-scale enslavement led to plantation systems and the displacement of marginalized peasants. Large-scale enslavement was frequent in Italy, Sicily, and N Africa.
• Feudal Slaves; Slaves that come with land and have no rights
• Elites bought land & slaves to make more money with single-crop plantations.
• Enslaved people led revolts.
• The creation of coinage facilitated trade and the exchange of goods and services.
• Cities began to mint coins of gold and other precious metals, leading to widespread trade.

Hellenism acceptance

• Elites enhanced their positions by embracing Hellenism such as Egypt who worshipped greek gods, integrated their art styles and had Greek scribes write its history.
• Jews in Judea resisted Hellenistic culture, leading to revolts such as the revolt led by the Maccabee family who chased Selecuids out of the temple in Jerusalem.
• Some Jewish thinkers wrote in Greek in Hellenistic styles.
• Rome adopted significant elements of culture.
• Carthage integrated Hellenistic culture with North African traditions.
• Some Carhaginians received education in Athens modelled after athenian scholars.
• Hellenism facilitated trade and increased communication.