Medieval Romanian States (9th-13th Centuries)

• The Romanian society evolved into medieval Romanian states by the 9th-13th centuries due to internal development and defense against external threats.

Society in the 9th-13th Centuries

• Village communities that were self-organized and socio-economically independent, fulfilling social, economic, political, religious, and cultural functions existed

Origins of Pre-state Formations

• Village communities united, forming "popular Romanias" which led to pre-state political entities or local autonomies known as cnezates, voivodeships, jupanates, "lands," codrii, and campuri.

Romanian Pre-state Formations / Local Autonomies (9th-13th Centuries)

• These formations are in Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.

Transylvania (Intracarpathian Area)

• During the 9th and 10th centuries, the “Gesta Hungarorum” mentions the Voivodeship of Glad in Banat, Voivodeship of Gelu in Transylvania, and Voivodeship of Menumorut in Crisana.
• In the 11th century, the "Legend of Saint Gerard" mentions the Voivodeship of Ahtum in Banat and the Voivodeship of Gyla in Transylvania

Wallachia (South of the Carpathians, Between the Carpathians and the Danube)

• The "Diploma of the Knights Hospitaller" from 1247 mentions: Tara Severinului, the Cnezate of Ioan, the Cnezate of Farcaş, the Voivodeship of Litovoi, and the Voivodeship of Seneslau.

Moldavia (East of the Carpathians, Between the Carpathians and the Dniester)

• 12th-13th century Russian, papal, and Hungarian chronicles mention: The land of the Romanians, the land of the Bolohoveni, the land of the Brodnici, and the land of the Berladnici.

Dobrogea (Between the Danube and the Sea)

• In the 10th century, the jupanate of Dimitrie and the jupanate of Gheorghe are attested.
• In the 11th century, Ana Comnena’s “Alexiada” mentions three leaders from Dobrogea: Tatos, Satza, and Setslav.
• In 1230, a diploma mentions the Land of Cavarna between Mangalia and Varna, the nucleus of the future state of Dobrogea.

Characteristics of Romanian Local Autonomies

• They formed through the union of village communities and had the right to self-governance.

Organization and Leadership

• Organized as voivodeships, cnezates, and lands, with leaders having military, administrative, and judicial duties.
• There were conflicts with the Hungarians, like the voivodeships in Transylvania in the 9th-11th centuries and Litovoi in 1277-1279.
• They formed the basis for the medieval Romanian states.

Internal Factors Favoring the Formation of Medieval Romanian States

• Substantial demographic increase and economic prosperity occurred
• There was development of trade routes crossing Romanian territories and increased social differentiation within village communities
• There was emergence of leading elements unifying pre-state formations.

External Factors Favoring the Formation of Medieval Romanian States

• The extinction of the Arpad dynasty and the dynastic crisis in Hungary between 1301-1308 occurred
• The rise of the Golden Horde stopped Hungarian pressure south and east of the Carpathians
• The Byzantine Empire's hegemonic tendencies considered the Carpathian-Danubian-Pontic area a strategic point.

Stages of Forming Medieval Romanian States

• Unified local Romanian autonomies under a single leader and created internal institutions for state affirmation.

Establishment of the Medieval State of Transylvania

• Resistance of Romanian voivodeships against Hungarian expansion occurred
• Hungarian conquest of Transylvania also took place.
• Following the establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary and the conversion of Hungarians to Catholicism, the systematic conquest of Transylvania began in the 11th century.
• Hungarians organized conquered territory into counties and attempted to introduce the principality and Catholic episcopates.
• Transylvania was organized as an autonomous voivodeship under Hungarian suzerainty

Settling Transylvania

• In the 12th-13th centuries, the Hungarian crown colonized Transylvania with Saxons and Szeklers to defend borders and stimulate economic development.
• Central Transylvania was integrated into Hungarian structures; on the borders, Romanian autonomies continued as "lands."

Post-Hungarian Kingdom Events

• In 1526, Hungary was defeated by the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Mohács, leading to its transformation into a Turkish pashalic in 1541.
• Transylvania became an autonomous principality under Ottoman suzerainty

Social Status

• Romanians were gradually excluded from Transylvania's political and religious life, acquiring the status of "tolerated."
• This legal inferiority was established by the Angevin diplomas (1366) conditioning nobility on adherence to Catholicism and by the Unio Trium Nationum, the alliance of the three privileged nations.

Forming the Medieval State of Wallachia

Stages of Foundation

• Cnezates and voivodeships, attested in 1247 by the Diploma of the Knights Hospitaller, were under Hungarian suzerainty.
• In 1277, Voivode Litovoi conflicted with Hungarian King Ladislaus IV, leading to his death in battle

Consolidation

• Local autonomies south of the Carpathians unified under a single leader during the "dismounting" of Negruvodă from Făgăraş to Câmpulung and Argeş (1290-1291).
• Basarab I (1310-1352) is attributed with the actual founding of Wallachia, taking the title of "great voivode" and recognizing Hungarian King Carol Robert of Anjou's suzerainty.

Independence

• Independence was achieved with Basarab I's victory at the Battle of Posada (1330) against Hungarian King Carol Robert of Anjou.

Forming the Medieval State of Moldavia

Key Stages

• "Dismounting of Dragoş" placed after 1350, established a defensive mark against the Tatars in northern Moldavia, called "Little Moldavia," by Voivode Dragoş of Maramureş under Hungarian King Louis I of Anjou's initiative.
• "Dismounting of Bogdan" around 1360, Voivode Bogdan of Maramureş conflicted with Hungarian King Louis I of Anjou, crossed the mountains into Moldavia, participated in a local revolt, and gained independence from the Hungarian crown.

Political Independence Consolidation

• Political independence was consolidated under Bogdan's successors.
• Petru Muşat (1375-1391) initiated alliance with Poland's King Władysław II Jagiełło and established the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Moldavia in Suceava, minting the first coins of the Moldavian state.
• Roman I (1391-1394) completed the territorial unification of Moldavia "from the mountains to the sea," resulting in Greater Moldavia.

Forming the Medieval State of Dobrogea

• This occurred in the 14th century due to the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgarian Tsardom.
• The Land of Cavarna represented the nucleus of the Dobrogean state.
• Balica (1346-1354), Dobrotici (1354-1386), and Ivanco ruled successively
• Dobrotici extended his authority over the entire territory between the Danube and the sea
• Ivanco was involved in battles with the Turks and lost his life.
• In 1388, Wallachian ruler Mircea the Elder united Dobrogea with Wallachia.

Similarities and Differences

• Both Wallachia and Moldavia formed through the union of local Romanian autonomies under single leaders and had a "dismounting" as their basis.
• They both achieved independence through battle against the Hungarian crown.
• Wallachia had one "dismounting," while Moldavia had two.
• The theory of the "dismounting" is not supported by historical sources in Wallachia but is confirmed by the chronicle of John of Târnava in Moldavia.
• In Wallachia, the "dismounters" came from the Land of Făgăraș, while in Moldavia, they came from the Land of Maramureş

Role of Transylvanians

• Transylvanians significantly contributed to forming Romanian states outside the Carpathians through the "dismounting."
• Constant Hungarian pressure on Romanian autonomies in Transylvania caused a population displacement towards areas outside the Carpathians.
• Negruvodă’s "dismounting" from the Land of Făgăraș to Câmpulung and Argeş (1290-1291) is historically relevant.

Central Institutions in Medieval Romanian States

Transylvania:

• Voivodeship (1176-1541): Led by a voivode appointed by the Hungarian king, with military, administrative, and judicial duties, assisted by a vice-voivode, Council, and noble assemblies.
• Autonomous Principality under Ottoman Suzerainty (1541-1688): Led by a prince elected by the Diet and confirmed by the Sultan, with Turkish domination in 1541.
• Principality of Transylvania Integrated into Habsburg Dominions (1688-1867): Habsburg domination was inaugurated in 1688 and legitimized by the Leopoldine Diploma in 1691; governed by the Emperor of Vienna, with effective governance by a military governor elected by the Diet.

Wallachia and Moldavia:

• The "Domnia" represented the supreme central institution and was led by the Domn/ruler, possessing broad authority in internal and external policies as head of state, supreme commander, and legislative issuer.
• The ruler bestowed ranks and privileges, established taxes, was the supreme judge, declared war, and signed international treaties.
• Succession to the throne was elective-hereditary within the Basarab (Wallachia) and Muşatin (Moldavia) families.
• In the 16th century, the election of the ruler was accompanied by confirmation from the Porte

Phanariote Regime

• In the early 18th century, the Porte lost confidence in local rulers and appointed Phanariote rulers from the Greek dragomans of Constantinople, who bought their position from the Sultan.
• These rulers had short reigns and lacked initiative in foreign policy.

The Princely Council

• Was a central institution with a consultative role, made up of boyars with positions of authority and high-ranking clergy, assisting the ruler in important decisions.
• Significant officials included the Great Ban of Oltenia (Wallachia) and the Gatekeeper of Suceava (Moldavia).

The Assembly of the Land

• A central institution with a consultative role, composed of representatives of free social classes, convened in exceptional cases for confirming the election of the ruler and approving internal and external taxes.

The Church

• It was the second most important institution in the country, organized under the form of metropolises, bishoprics, and monasteries in both Wallachia and Moldavia, led by the metropolitan, who was the second highest state official.
• The Metropolitan participated in the election of the ruler, participated in the anointing with holy oil, led diplomatic missions, acted as the ruler's deputy, and supported the church by endowing monasteries with land.