Medieval Test #4

Medieval Reading and Literature

• Boethius' "Consolation of Philosophy" (480-524) is considered the last masterpiece from Antiquity
• Spiritual development was deemed more important than worldly success
• Literacy declined during the Merovingian Kings of the Franks era (c. 481-751)
• Bishop Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594) wrote "History of the Franks," which displays a weak understanding of Latin grammar
• The clergy was the primary audience after the Carolingian Renaissance
• The Bible was the main text in circulation
• Writings by Church Fathers were highly valued
• Increased literacy came from Vulgate Latin. in common use compared to formal Latin
• Beowulf is an epic poem from the Germanic oral tradition
• Beowulf marks earliest surviving secular text from Anglo-Saxon literature and heroic poetry, featuring a Christian theme
• Written in Old English during the 8th century
• A single 10th-century manuscript of Beowulf exists at the British Library
• Snorri Sturluson (1179-1242) was an Icelandic poet and historian who wrote "Heimskringla" Sagas of the Norwegian Kings
• "Heimskringla" begins with Odin and the House of Ynglings Swedish dynasty
• Finishes with more historical accounts from the 10th to 12th centuries, ending with the death of Eystein Meyla in 1177
• Tales cover events from Constantinople and North Africa, to England, Iceland and Canada
• The rise of literacy led to increased exposure to ideas
• Expansion of literacy allowed for more independent thought diverging from Church direction
• Expression and spread of heretical ideas became more common
• John Wycliffite Bibles were published from 1382-1395
• The Church created "Bibles moralisees" as a countermeasure
• Illustrated Bibles were used to teach scripture to the illiterate using pictures
• These developments paved the way for the Reformation
• Books remained precious and expensive, a privilege of the few
• Nobles and the wealthy were "opinion-makers" due to the far-reaching implications of what they read

Writing Materials: Rolls and Scrolls

• A "volumen" refers to each sheet of papyrus
• Most books required multiple "volumina"
• This explains the division of ancient works
• Papyrus rolls were susceptible to damage from rolling, unrolling, and moisture
• Parchment is vellum
• The oldest parchment dates to 189 BCE
• By the 1st century CE, parchment was commonly used
• Parchment is made from animal skin, especially lamb
• Vellum is much more durable and expensive compared to papyrus

Origins of the Book

• The bound "codex" format grew out of the Roman wax tablet ledger
• Codexes were made of parchment, not papyrus
• The first "cidices" appeared in the 2nd century BCE
• Initially, codexes were used in the legal profession
• The format became dominant by the 4th century CE

Late Antique Art

• Early Christian art dates from c.200-500 CE
• Featured bright colors and realistic portraits
• Similar to wall-paintings from Pompeii
• Initials were not typically decorated
• Existing Roman art styles and Christian iconography were adapted

Early Medieval Celtic Style

• AKA "Insular" style
• Prominent in 6th-8th century Ireland
• Combines Celtic, pagan, Christian, and mythological elements
• Characterized by intricate geometric patterns of ribbon interlace spirals, Celtic knots, foliage, and stylized animals
• Human figures were very stylized

Carolingian Styles

• Reflected the increasing literacy of the era
• Different styles originated in monasteries, with a characteristic reformed script
• Included naturalistic foliage
• Featured vibrant colors
• Highly detailed

Later Middle Ages Styles

• 10th - 14th centuries
• Used stylized portraiture
• Featured less text and more decoration
• Fine-lined, colored initials were decorated in blue and red (France)
• Figures were often vigorous and expressive
• Battles between men and grotesque beasts and monsters were popular themes, with loose religious significance

Medieval Warfare: Regional Differences

• Northern European armies relied more on infantry
• Eastern European armies had more cavalry and horse archers
• Southern European armies used more armor
• Islamic and Byzantine armies employed more archers and armored cavalry
• European armies preferred direct charges and close combat with "cold steel"
• Eastern armies favored skirmishing and "hit and run" tactics

Evolution of the European Warrior: Rome

• Relied on heavy throwing spears (pilum) and short swords (gladius)

Roman Cavalrymen

• Were called Equestrians ("Knights")
• Recruits were wealthy citizens and barbarian nobles
• They had less armor versus the Legionaries

5th-9th Century "Barbarian" Armies

• Franks, Angles, Saxons, and Burgundians relied on massed charges by unarmored infantry armies
• Lombards, Gepids, Ostrogoths, Vandals and Visigoths used massed cavalry charges backed by infantry assaults
• Select elite and noble troops formed the king’s personal bodyguard (comitatus)
• Soldiers were bound by oath to fight to the death
• The warriors were armored and aggressive

10th-11th Century Normans: Rise of the Knight

• In 911, Rollo, a Viking, took Normandy as a fief from the King of France
• Norse recklessness and Frankish horsemanship intermarried
• Normans became the best shock cavalry in Europe
• Lack of land led to constant wars in France and Italy and mercenary work in the Byzantine Empire
• A new military elite was born, combining speed, mobility, armor, stirrups and the lance
  • An irresistible shock cavalry charge

Battle of Hastings, 1066

• 1066 William the Conqueror defeats King Harold Godwisson
• William became King of England
• Bayeux Tapestry illustrates Norman Knight victory over elite English heavy infantry bodyguard (Huscarls)
• News of victory and news of cavalry tactics spread quickly
• Infantry now secondary to cavalry in Europe

11th Century Norman Infantryman and Knight

• Feudal system provided knights, heavy infantry and bowmen
• Mercenaries and adventurers were also used when possible
• Professional soldiers could serve for unspecified time
• Most feudal soldiers could only serve for 40 days
• Feudalism was central to obligations to knightly system

Birth of Knighthood, 11th-13th Centuries

• Knights became a social and warrior class of their own
• Born or raised into noble status
• Very formalized by the 13th century
• Focused on the occupation of the nobility
• Age of 6-10 page (education in courtly manners)
• Age 10-14 Esquire (trained under a knight, groomed for horses, etc)
• Age 14-16 knighted
• Courtly love traditions evolved around "brave knights and their heroic deeds"
  • Celebrated by Troubadours

Crusades, 11th-13th Centuries

• Meeting with Muslim states lead to improved armor for infantry and knights
  • More angled and rounded armor to deflect arrows
  • Chainmail improved to counter penetration of arrows from Middle Eastern archers
  • Smaller and tighter rows of iron rings in armor to stop arrows
  • Plate armor began to see use, but was expensive
• Personal Heraldry rises in importance
• Cloth barding (armor) used to protect horses from arrows

100 Years War (1337 to 1453)

• Struggle between nobility over position of King of France
  • The French King died without a direct heir
• Both nations had strong claims
• English Crown and nobility possessed great landholdings in France (i.e. Normandy)
• The English tried to maintain and expand in France
• The French tried to expel the English and keep the Crown

The Chevauchee

• The practice involved raiding of enemy lands was common to gain supplies and weaken cities
• Lack of supplies meant “living off the land”
• Allowed forces to draw out enemy to battle
• To help pay troops

100 Years War: Warfare Changes

• English longbowmen destroyed French Knights and nobility

War of the Roses (1455-1485)

• Fought in England between supporters of the House of Lancaster and the House of York

Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485

• Henry Tudor’s (Lancaster) forces defeated Richard III’s (York) forces, 1485
• Henry Tudor becomes King Henry VII of England
• Henry strengthened his position by marrying Liz of York

Hand Weapons: Swords

• Fuller: groove along the sword's blade
  • The shape of the fuller makes the sword lighter and flexible
  • NOT to channel blood
• Pommel: for balancing weight
• Typical sword: 1.5 Kg
• Extreme example: 6-8 ft bastard swords
  • Can concuss if not cut

Arrows

• They are fletched with trimmed wing feathers of large birds (i.e. geese)
• Early types
  • Barbed tip
  • Used for war and hunting
  • Mostly ineffective against Plate armor
  • Effective vs light armor and cavalry charges
• Medieval Arrowheads
  • Bodkin for use of piercing
  • Broadhead or swallowtail to injure unarmored horses and men

Crossbow

• Banned from use against other Christians, Pope in 1139 (ignored)
  • A "weapon of mass destruction”
  • Made for use against heretics, outlaws and Infidels

Famous Weapons

• Charlemagne's Sword, "Joyeuse"
  • "Joyous"
  • Mentioned in Song of Roland (11th c.)
  • One in the Louvre and Vienna
  • Said to contain tip of the Lance of Longinus in the pommel
  • Used as French coronation sword since the 13th century
• Roland's Sword, "Durendal"
  • Indestructible
  • Tooth of St. Peter
  • Blood of St. Basil
  • Hair of St. Denis
  • Piece of Mary's clothes
  • Part in Song of Roland
  • Threw the sword and got stuck in a rock
• Beowulf's Sword "Hrunting"
  • “Thrusting”
  • A gift to Beowulf from Thane Unferth to fight Grendel

Medieval Siege Weapons : The Catapult

• Generic term for “siege engine”
• Projectile projector
• Various designs, models
• Used torsion. Winding for propulsion/Release
• Used counterweight/gravity for propulsion

Counterweight Trebuchet

• Considered as most powerful weapon in the Middle Ages
• Was late 11th century creation
• Used for gravity and was large and complex
• Only used for long sieges and strong walls
• Slow and difficult to make
• Slow fire speed
• Heavy and dangerous

Famous Trebuchets

• During the Seige of Acre, France named two as God's Thrower and neighbor
• During the Stirling Castle Seige, England made "Warwolf"

Gunpowder Weapons

• Guns first seen in 1364
• Cannons with greater frequency
• New firearms were easier to use vs tools as such
• Both weapons banned and ignored
• Walls becoming obsolete

Women Warriors of the Middle Ages

• Urraca was Queen of Dragon
• Duchess Sikelgaita married of Duke of Apulia of Italy
• Sikelgaita was know to lead battle
• Anna called Sikelgaita a formidable sight

Medival Transportation

• Transportation By Land taxed with a user fee
• Local noble maintained roads and taxes
• Over water, river network for trade and war
• Less risk, less time than over land transport
• Heavy for large items
• Barges for animals, flat bottoms, ores, sails

Medieval trade and economics

• Began in early Middle Ages (500-1000)
• There consisted of Subjects/lord relationship<>production
• Barter system
• Demographics led to many farmers
• No schools, men away from war. Extended families
• Norse, Islamic and Byzantine traders
• Before 1000, traders were considered strangers with no legal status
• Traders were not trusted by locals and provided no protection
• After 1000: authorities defined role for merchants, who were at an advantage
• The creation of Guild Towns
• There were controlled trade zones
• Mid 12th to 17th centuries Northern used the Hanseatic League
• Kings hosted trade fairs to control
• Fairs were held at Champagne

Trade in Champagne

• Was a 12th century creation
• With careful laws set in place from Dukes of Champange
• New coins and law
• Six fairs per year. Luxury goods
• Traded luxury items and set new change
• First regular trading post Roman
• Lead to new changes and information flow

Venetian trade

• Big power in 1300 with naval power
• Based off shipping around shipping
• Began in Easter Alps for a trading center

Money and Banking

• Led to expansion to shipping in Constantinople
• Also Muslim slave land
• Set trade competition for sea Mediterranean routes
• Many towns set European side for trade, especially for luxury items

Medieval Money and Banking

• There were set templates for trade route in Europe
• It was more dangerous or illegal to trade in person

Impact of the Rise of a Money Economy

• Traded in other markets
• Was ineffective
• Land value was not able to transport
• Class imbalance
• Greater demand

The End of the Middle Ages

Main name and date markers:

• Turks took Contantinople in 1453
• Printing developed~1455
• Discovery in 1492
• Reformation~1520

Constantinople Took

• End in Roman empire
• No more romans. No more crusades to east
• In Balkan new unity in europe
• In Italia they help bring more renissance
• Limites Silk Road
• Find new wealth

The Printing Press and Gutenberg

• Type c1455 for new technology
• Rapid spread of knowlege and common speaking
• Increased reades adn no common relgious

America Discovered

• Challend common "truths"
• Made a new world, now a source of weath
• Silver brought back

Martin Luther

• Monk and professor
• Did not like Catholic Church
• Challended Pope in Church
• Refuesd to rneounce and excommunicated

Protestant Reformation

• First reformer
  • Changed authority
  • Broke in multiple new religions
  • Weak and less powers