Medieval Literature: Key Terms and Christian Influence

Medieval Literature

• Key terms include canon, exemplar, literary periods, literary criticism, oral delivery, manuscript, and scansion.
• Other key terms are alliteration, amplification, antagonist, assonance, caesura, consonance, conflict, and diction.
• More key terms comprise digression, four-stress line, kennings, personification, plot, prologue, protagonist, stressed and unstressed syllables.
• Remaining key terms consist of Arthurian legend, courtly love, lay, romance, class, estates, fabliau, burlesque, allegory, and onomatopoeia.
• Students should read the introduction to the Middle Ages, pages A.3-29 in the Norton Anthology of English Literature.
• After completing the reading, an audio recording summarizes the introduction's main points by Dr. Ritchie.
• The Literary Period Introduction Quiz can be taken at any time during the module, before the module begins.

Christianity's Influence

• Christian texts are read for their historical significance
• The Germanic peoples of Britain did not write until after conversion to Christianity, which began in the late sixth century (excluding runic alphabet).
• Monasteries and nunneries preserved, copied, and developed the English language, also acting as centers of learning and book culture.
• Christianity and literacy are inseparable in Britain, with many works of medieval literature being religious in nature.
• The coming of Christianity did not extinguish older pre-literate traditions of Germanic poetry.

Literature and Material History

• It is important to consider how texts are made across literary history because how they are produced and packaged affects their interpretation and distribution.
• Texts in the Anglo-Saxon period were produced in manuscript, meaning "written by hand" and copied by scribes from an exemplar.
• Scribes wrote on parchment made of animal skins.
• Parchment is expensive and time-consuming.
• Letters would sometimes be scraped off an old text for a new one, creating a reused parchment called palimpsest.
• Paper only came into use in Europe in the twelfth century.
• Scribes copied texts by hand, introducing variants and errors.
• Copyists and readers often inserted their own notes and doodles.
• Scholars of medieval texts require knowledge of Latin, vernacular languages, and palaeography (the study of handwriting and documents from the past).

The Sound of Old English

• The way texts were read and used differed greatly, as did the sounds of the language.

The Venerable Bede

• The Venerable Bede (ca. 673-735) was the first person to compile a history of England.
• His Ecclesiastical History was translated into Anglo-Saxon, though initially written in Latin.
• Bede's Ecclesiastical History indicates he entered a monastery in Northumberland at age seven and became a priest in the Catholic Church.
• Bede valued Holy Scripture as divine, authoritative, true, historical, literary, and beautiful for its authority, utility, antiquity, and literary form.

Caedmon's Hymn

• "Caedmon's Hymn" is a short devotional poem excerpted from Bede's Ecclesiastical History.
• It's the first recorded English poem (ca. 658-680) and it raises the question of where artists/writers get their ideas.
• The story of Caedmon suggests inspiration comes from contemplation of the divine, not from the human condition.
• Caedmon is a humble figure or an instrument for divine inspiration, which inspires contempt for the world and longing for heavenly delights.
• Artistic composition is man's work, but inspiration is a divine gift.
• Caedmon's position as an artist is significant, as religious poetry empowers people's souls.
• Bede highlights Caedmon's uniqueness in Britain's poetic tradition.
• Caedmon's inability to sing leads to his divine inspiration in a dream, where an unnamed figure commands him to sing about Creation.
• Caedmon's inspiration is linked to the Bible's prophets and disciples.
• Caedmon's song emphasizes God creating heaven and earth for man and is written in alliterative verse.
• The song uses seven names for God, suggesting God's nature is unknowable and exceeds human capacity to describe it.
• The learned religious community accepts Caedmon's vision as divine grace and instructs him further in divine Scripture.
• Caedmon is compared to a "clean beast that chews the cud," receiving new material from the religious community and returning it in a fresh form.
• Caedmon sought to turn men from sin and inspire delight in good practice through his hymns.

Translation

• Multiple layers of translation exist, going from Latin to modern English.
• Some versions of Bede's History have the poem in different Old English dialects, with West Saxon translated into modern English.
• Translation involves interpretation and explanation; it can mean something is moved or changed or even "to carry or convey to heaven without death".
• Caedmon translates a spiritual dream into real-world singing after Abbess Hilda and the religious community provide him with material in song.
• A modern introduction suggests Caedmon hid his gift for songwriting due to shame over profane content, differing from the abbess's divine inspiration theory.
• Medieval Anglo-Saxons and modern people differ in their interpretive stances, with the former prioritizing divine inspiration and the latter empirical evidence.
• Medieval people saw the world evidence of a divine mind, while modern people seek scientific explanations.
• Lyrical transformation of old thoughts into new forms is considered a mystical gift.
• Creative translation provides pleasure to the audience and artist, with all inventions being a miniature Creation from old materials.

Beowulf

• Beowulf contains brave deeds, fantastic monsters, realistic depictions of human greed, resourcefulness, and community courage.
• The poem likely dates from the eighth-eleventh centuries, set in a partly mythic/historic Sweden and Denmark from the fifth/early sixth centuries.
• There is a single manuscript copy left of Beowulf's story because it miraculously survived.
• There are films based on the plot line.
• The poem is meant to be enjoyed aurally.
• Beowulf uses a four-stress line and accentual verse, where stresses are emphasized through alliteration
• Some scholars believe that the poem was orated via a scop and musical instrument.
• Many scholars believe that morality traditions are included.
• Others think the poem demonstrates a Christian poet at work
• It is believed that the poem was performed orally to audiences with wealthy backgrounds.

Gold Belt Buckle From Sutton Hoo Treasure

• The complexity of Beowulf's structure is related to interlaced Anglo-Saxon, Germanic and Celtic art.
• One must decipher digressions and how they connect to parts of the plot.

Rise Of The Danish Nation

• Seamus Heaney says the word "so" functions as an expression that eliminates previous narrative while summoning immediate attention.
• An epic poem uses elevated language like the introduction that tells the contextual history of the Spear-Danes like Shield Sheafson.
• The poet defines a good king with acknowledgement in line 11.
• Caesura makes the reader pay more attention.
• Beow is described at lines 20-25.
• The poet emphasizes the relationship of policy and politics to heroism that returns throughout the poem.
• Recognition and love are rewards as referenced towards the end of Sheafson's life.
• The poet traces descent of Shield Sheafson's line.
• The prologue indicates 'comitatus' or Germanic warrior code where warriors swear loyalty and are rewarded.

Interpretation and Form of the Poem

• Beowulf is an epic with 3 sections. It is divided into sections to consider each of Beowulf's battles as a separate narrative event in the plot.
• Plot is a series of events that reach certain artistic or emotional effects.
• Beowulf is the protagonist and hero and Grendel is the antagonist.
• The story reads as a allegory with literal and interpretable aspects.

Hoerot Is Attacked

• Heorot is the hall used for Hrothgar's throne that was a meant for dispensing wealth in a location considered important to the Spear-Danes.
• It is described multiple times in poem for emphasis.
• The hall is personified showing the halls empathy and value.
• Grendel attacks Heorot becoming someone who attacks the values warriors uphold.
• Grendel is both pagan and a biblical fiend.
• It is revealed the Grendel is from the lineage of Cain.
• Because Grendel comes to Heoret and saw the Spear-Danes as elevated he wishes to exact revenge by disrupting and murdering.
• Grendel's attack led to Hrothgar sat with being helpless being humiliated by the loss that breaks of the kinship.
• For the attacks no death-price.
• The attacks continue for 12 yr during a time where songs were sung that were heard by in the land of Geats' where Beowulf was heard about Hrothgars troubles.

The Hero Comes to Heorot

• Narratively the poem creates suspense by withholding Grendel's name and by delaying with introduction of his hero from the shift in point of view.
• The poet shifts this narrative by shifting into the voice of the watchman moving in the vessel which enables it to give a sense of immediacy, show what Beowulf looks like and the reduced strength of the Danes.
• The watchman comments what Beowulf is not a hanger-on of hero's armor.
• This Sentry provides relief later unlocked his "word-hoard" telling the coast guard he will get rid of Grendel.
• "Kenning" replaces a noun with two or more words to create a compound metaphor.

Feast at Heorot

• Beowulf is motivated with kinship ties and has a goal to appear not superficial but meaningful.
• Gold is an indicator of success which needs to be traded with acts of bravery that can bring recipients wealth.
• Beowulf is judged based on well armed and their appearance.
• Hrothgar remembers Beowulf accomplished in his youth from information has heard and substanitates Beowulf appearing worthy which has been.

The Fight With Grendel

• Beowulf decides to fight monster in hand to hand combat over having pride and strength.
• Since Grendel is a social outcast, Grendel has no idea what arts of war entail for men who win glory.
• Beowulf associated with the high golden hall unlike Grendel's murky and dark stature.
• The sounds of alliteration on verbs make the sound visceral.
• Mid-line caesura matched with the action as it turns to the talons.
• Heorot's rafters trembled as Grendel's limbs became a trophy which was followed by songs.

Another Attack

• The code of warriors involves revenge for deaths as did the Danes for Beowulf.
• They gave Wergild (man-price) for death for Beowulf for death of Geats.
• However the mother of Grendel does not have compensation so she has come to exract blood for the loss.
• At line 1260 this is amplified after Cain killed his father's story as it increases goodness.
• Grendel's mother wants vengeance and also establishes limited sympathy for monsters.
• Mother in the poem doesn't fit portrait of a feminine peaceweaver however has become a twist.

Beowulf Fights Grendel's Mother

• Hrothgar is overindulging in the loss of Aeschece rather than acting shows the role of a king.
• Grendel's mother is in liminal space.
• Grendel's mother is in liminal space.
• As Hrothgar tells Beowulf, Grendel's mother inhabits the rural pond which creates a heroic setting to act.
• One of usual components is arming the hero then putting on armor which leads up to a sword test which fails and a deadly wound.
• The giants sword to heat the head to prove his dead.

Celebration at Heorot

• Hrothgar extended speech to Beowulf in which to beware of overweening pride as he grows older so to have compensations and wisdom.
• Hrothgar defined himself of a king to uphold true and justice then re-defines.
• Throughout the episodes, one can see the classic power of of who man to impress and replace to warn Beowolf to be open-handed instead of bloodthirsty where heros is able to give.

Beowulf Returns Home

• From what has been said, it was said that Beowulf was very poor.
• He had been rejected a long time.

The Dragon Wakes

• Hrothgar cautioned Beowulf previously about overweening pride.
• Hrothgar has fortold possible wise power to be gained of Beoulf.
• The dragon is the the Geats or the original treasure is valuable.
• Treasures have a meaning circulate by those like mentioned in Beowulf as held.
• Dragons are naturally covetous who love for gold like warrior society.
• The treasure represents like an inversion to underground by the trope.

Beowulf Attacks The Dragon

• The act of the arming begins in the final battle of the hereo which is a choice of having sword and shield as he leaves men.
• The man that joins Beowuf to speak of the loyal warrior and the generosity of his lord through many gifts.
• Wigafe emphasis the words to to show his Beowolf is what and can.
• Wigafe generosity early with Horthgar.
• Through no heir protected cared for over long so kind and done.

Beowulf's Funeral.

• Wiglaf sees one is one of sorrow because its for not death but only left, Beowulf of won.
• The hard will, Beowolf with used the leader.
• Bereft a that quenched the being will to loot.
• A funeral there over land heaven and a for his could.
• This woman made that to visible people.

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Final Note

• Translation of this text has not been completed.