Medieval Ballads and Geoffrey Chaucer Overview

Medieval Ballads

• Ballads were popular songs primarily sung in Europe during the late Middle Ages.
• These collective culture songs were orally transmitted before being written down in the 13th and 14th centuries.
• In 1765 Bishop Thomas Percy collected and published ballads in Reliques of Ancient English Poetry.
• Medieval ballads have a four-line stanza structure with either an ABCB or ABAB rhyme scheme.
• They employ repetition and refrains to aid memorization and often mix narration with dialogue.
• Ballads relate short and dramatic stories that start abruptly at a moment of resolution or crisis.
• They usually focus on ordinary people but sometimes feature supernatural beings.
• The language used is simple and lacks moralistic intent.
• Ballad themes can include:
  • Magic (fairies, ghosts, witchcraft)
  • Border conflicts (English-Scottish rivalry)
  • Love and domestic tragedy
  • Outlaws (such as Robin Hood)

Geoffrey Chaucer

• Geoffrey Chaucer was born around 1343 in London, England and died in 1400.
• Chaucer was the son of a wealthy wine merchant, which allowed him a good education.
• He was closely connected to the royal court and travelled to Italy, where he was influenced by Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.
• In 1374 Chaucer became Controller of the Customs in the Port of London and later became a Member of Parliament for Kent.
• He may have been sympathetic to John Wycliffe's reformist ideas.
• After losing his official positions in 1386, he began writing The Canterbury Tales.
• Chaucer was later appointed Clerk of the King's Works in Westminster.
• He lived in Greenwich until death and was the first poet to be buried in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey.

Chaucer's Literary Periods

• French Period: Inspired by French romance literature, including The Romaunt of the Rose and The Boke of the Duchesse.
• Italian Period: Demonstrated greater poetic skill, with works such as The Parlement of Foules, The Legende of Good Women, and Troilus and Criseyde, influenced by Boccaccio
• English Period: Focused on realism, culminating in The Canterbury Tales.

Chaucer's Legacy

• Chaucer is considered the father of English literature.
• He captured contemporary English society and wrote in the London dialect, which helped shape Modern English.
• Before him, literature was mostly in French or Latin, but Chaucer proved English equal in richness.
• He introduced about 2,000 words and phrases into the language, including plumage, galaxy, scissors, and expressions like love is blind and shaking like a leaf.

The Canterbury Tales

• The Canterbury Tales follows thirty pilgrims, including Chaucer as the narrator, who travel to Canterbury to visit Thomas Becket's shrine.
• They meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark in April.
• To entertain themselves, the Host proposes a storytelling contest: each pilgrim will tell two stories on the way there and two on the way back. The best tale will win a prize.
• Chaucer died before completing the work, so the pilgrims never reach Canterbury.

Frame Narrative

• The poem has a frame narrative, meaning a story within a story.
• The General Prologue introduces the pilgrims.
• The pilgrims' individual tales explore different themes and Chaucer as the narrator provides ironic commentary.
• The tales often include realism and moral lessons.

Style

• The Canterbury Tales is a long narrative poem written in rhyming couplets using iambic pentameter.
• Each line has five beats following an unstressed/stressed pattern, similar to a heartbeat.
• This became the standard meter for English poetry.

The Pilgrims

• Chaucer provides a vivid portrayal of medieval society.
• The pilgrims come from various social classes, excluding the high aristocracy (who wouldn't travel with commoners) and peasants (who couldn't afford the trip).
• He begins with a noble knight, then moves to the clergy, humorously exposing the corruption of monks, friars, and pardoners.
• He also highlights the rising middle class, including merchants and artisans, with The Wife of Bath being one of the most memorable pilgrims.

Characterization

• Chaucer's realism sets his work apart.
• His characters behave dynamically, in contrast to static medieval literary tradition.
• Their descriptions vary in detail, perspective, and tone, often focusing on appearance, actions, or personality.
• Many names reflect their professions, emphasizing how work shaped identity.
• Chaucer also uses satire, exaggeration, and caricature to criticize societal flaws and corruption.

Themes

• The main theme is the journey, both literal and symbolic.
• Set in spring, the pilgrimage represents rebirth and serves as an allegory for human life's spiritual journey.

Chaucer and Women

• Unlike traditional social hierarchy, Chaucer mixes male and female characters, reflecting women's rising influence in commerce.
• His portrayal of women suggests a respect for their independence, as seen in the Prioress and the Wife of Bath.

Key Female Characters

The Prioress

• The Prioress presents herself as an elegant lady rather than a humble nun.
• She sings delicately, speaks unsophisticated French, and exhibits refined table manners.
• Her sentimental emotions—crying over small creatures while neglecting charitable duties, highlighting her superficiality.
• Her fine clothes and a gold brooch inscribed with Amor vincit omnia (Love conquers all) suggest a concern with worldly status over religious devotion.
• Chaucer satirizes her hypocrisy, showing how she prioritizes appearances over piety.

The Wife of Bath

• The Wife of Bath defies medieval gender expectations as a bold, independent woman.
• A skilled cloth-maker, she surpasses even famous weavers and dresses extravagantly, with luxurious scarves, red stockings, and soft shoes.
• Her gap teeth, symbolizing sensuality, hint at her adventurous love life.
• Having married five times, she embraces her past relationships unapologetically.
• She also is a well-traveled pilgrim, demonstrating her financial stability and independence.
• Outspoken and witty, she enjoys debating love and relationships, making her an early depiction of female empowerment..

The Tudors

• The Tudors ruled England for almost 120 years.
• England laid the groundwork for a modern state by establishing:
  • naval supremacy
  • breaking from the Catholic Church
  • repelling Spanish threats
  • nurturing a thriving mercantile middle class

Henry VII (1485–1509)

• Henry VII was the first Tudor monarch, won the Battle of Bosworth, and ended the Wars of the Roses.
• Claim to the throne was initially weak, consolidated power through strategic alliances and trade agreements.
• He secured recognition from France and established economic ties with the Netherlands and Spain (marriage of his heir, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon).
• His prudent management laid foundation for a stronger, modern state and the future growth of England's naval power/invested in shipbuilding and established a merchant fleet.

Henry VIII (1509–1547)

• Henry VIII was known as the ‘Golden Prince' for his charisma, intellect, and chivalry.
• His initial popularity and scholarly pursuits—led to his treatise defending the sacraments and him earning the title 'Defender of the Faith' from the pope.
• His quest for a male heir led to a break with Rome.
• When the pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England through the 1534 Act of Supremacy.
• This allowed him to remarry, and led to the dissolution of monasteries, with lands and wealth absorbed by the crown, and altering the religious/economic landscape.

Edward VI (1547–1553)

• Ascending the throne at nine years old, Edward VI's reign was controlled by his uncles, the Duke of Somerset and later the Duke of Northumberland.
• Despite his short life, his reign was pivotal in reinforcing Protestant reforms, notably with the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer in 1549.

Mary I (1553–1558)

• Mary I, inherited a nation steeped in religious conflict.
• Her deep Catholic faith, grievances from her father's repudiation, and her determination to restore papal authority led her to marry Philip of Spain and aggressively persecute Protestants (~300 executed).
• These policies earned her the nickname 'Bloody Mary' resulted in a reign marked by political and religious failure.

Elizabeth I (1558–1603)

• Elizabeth I ascended the throne to lead a divided nation.
• With keen intellect and exceptional political skills, she restored Protestantism through the Church of England while allowing tolerance for Catholics.
• Unmarried by choice, Elizabeth used the prospect of marriage as a political bargaining chip, maintaining her authority as the “Virgin Queen.”
• The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 confirmed England's maritime supremacy and paved the way for its future colonial and economic expansion.

The Symbolism of Power and the Mask of Youth

• Elizabeth I skillfully crafted her public image to secure her rule.
• Instead of traveling extensively through the realm, she relied on portraits to project her power and majesty.
• Early depictions of Elizabeth were simple. Over time, her image became richly symbolic (i.e. Armada Portrait, crowns/globes).
• Modern art installations, i.e. The Mask of Youth, contrast these images by revealing aging, suggesting that behind the facade lay the reality of a mortal ruler.
• This duality underscores Elizabeth's mastery of propaganda and the enduring role of visual symbolism in maintaining political power.

The English Renaissance

• The Renaissance began in Italy in the late 14th century
• The English Renaissance began later than in the rest of Europe, lasting from 1509 (Henry VIII's reign) to 1660 (the Restoration).
• It was a time of great change in literature, poetry, and drama, influenced by Protestantism and the Reformation.
• Unlike the Italian Renaissance, which focused on art and classical beauty, the English Renaissance explored human emotions, reason, and the power of the English language in writing.
• Humanism became popular in schools and universities, helping writers gain confidence in English as a literary language.
• This period saw the rise of great poets and playwrights like Thomas Wyatt, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare.
• The Elizabethan worldview based on the “Great Chain of Being” and challenged by Nicolaus Copernicus.

The Sonnet

• The Renaissance was the golden age of poetry, especially the sonnet.
• Originally created in Italy by Giacomo da Lentini and perfected by Petrarch, it was introduced to England by Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey.
• Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet: 14 lines, an eight-line octave presents a problem and a six-line sestet offers a solution. The “volta” (turning point) usually appears at the ninth line.
• English (Shakespearean) sonnet: Has 14 lines; is divided into three four-line quatrains and a final two-line rhyming couplet. The couplet often gives a clever or surprising ending.
• Elizabethan poets loved using paradoxes.
• Many sonnets connected love for a woman with love for God, keeping love pure and idealized rather than physical.

William Shakespeare

His Life

• William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564.
• His exact birthdate is unknown, but he was baptized on April 26th.
• He attended grammar school, where he studied classical authors and rhetoric.
• At 18, he married Anne Hathaway and had three children (Susanna, and twins Judith and Hamnet).
• In 1584, he moved to London and joined a theatre company.
• In 1593, he secured the patronage of the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his poems.
• He became a shareholder and the main playwright of the Lord Chamberlain's Men.
• In 1599, they built the Globe Theatre, where most of his plays were performed.
• Shakespeare wrote around 37 plays and over 150 sonnets during his lifetime covering historical dramas (1590–1596), comedies (1593–1600), and great tragedies (1595–1605).
• He retired to Stratford, where he died at 52 and was buried in Holy Trinity Church.

The First Folio

• In 1623, Shakespeare's friends and fellow actors compiled 36 of his plays into the First Folio classified into comedies, tragedies, and histories.

His Language

• Shakespeare was highly innovative with language, creating over 1,700 words by modifying existing ones and coining new phrases, some of which remain in use today

Shakespeare's Sonnets

• Shakespeare's 154 sonnets were published in 1609 dedicated to “W.H.,” who some believe is William Herbert, the Earl of Pembroke.
• His sonnets are traditional and experimental/inspired many poets and artists.

Themes in the Sonnets

• The Fair Youth (Sonnets 1–126) are addressed to a young man, these explore themes of beauty, time, poetic immortality, and love.
• The Dark Lady (Sonnets 127–154) focus on a woman who is not beautiful but deeply desirable.
• It is uncertain whether Shakespeare's sonnets reflect his personal emotions.
• His poetic voice plays with ambiguity, making it difficult to define the poet's real-life relationship with the mysterious figures of the Fair Youth and the Dark Lady.

Shakespeare vs. Petrarch

• Shakespeare transformed the sonnet, altering its structure and themes.
  • His love sonnets were addressed to a young man, rather than a woman
  • The sonnets about a woman were unconventional, often rejecting beauty standards
  • His sonnets analyzed human emotions in a complex way

Shall I compare thee

• This is one of Shakespeare's most famous sonnets, addressed to the Fair Youth.
  • Points out that summer is imperfect and fleeting
  • Claims that the Fair Youth's beauty is different - beauty will never fade because it is immortalized in poetry because poetry defies death ensuring eternal admiration

My mistress' eyes

• Sonnet 130 realistically describes the Dark Lady.
  • Her eyes are not like the sun
  • Her lips are less red than coral.
  • Her breasts are not pure white like snow.
  • Her hair is like black wires
  • She does not smell like perfume.
  • Her voice is not as pleasant as music
• His love is not based on false comparisons or unrealistic ideals celebrating authentic love

The Development of Drama

• Drama originated in ancient Greece in the early 5th century BC.
  • Tragedy: features tragic events often with elevated language and serious themes dealing with fate and the destruction of the hero.
  • Comedy: marked by its humorous and satirical tone in ordinary situations with positive resolutions

Elizabethan Theatre

• Elizabethan drama by medieval theatre and classical traditions.
  • Medieval influence brought allegorical characters and situations, the mixing of comedy and tragedy, and themes of order in the universe fate and fortune
• Performances were popular in London, though public performances prohibited so theatres built in Southwark

The Elizabethan Playhouse

• The first permanent theatre, The Theatre, was built by James Burbage in 1576.
• Open-air theatres were often circular or octagonal, holding up to 3,000 people.
• The stage was rectangular and extended into the audience, with no curtain to separate actors/spectators.
• The stage had several parts, including a trapdoor and an upper stage used for special effects.
• Audiences were divided by social class.
• Theatres performed in afternoon with minimal props/scenery.

The Elizabethan Actor

• Actors were part of permanent companies, earning money from ticket sales.
• Male actors played female roles, constantly learning new plays and improvising keeping performance continuous.

Explore the characteristics of medieval ballads, including their structure, themes, and oral tradition. Learn about Bishop Thomas Percy's collection and the common subjects like magic, border conflicts, and domestic tragedies. Also, gain an introduction to Geoffrey Chaucer.