Medicine: Vesalius and Harvey

• Late medieval medicine was heavily influenced by the teachings of Galen, a Greek physician from the 2nd century C.E.
• His influence spanned anatomy, physiology, and understanding of diseases.
• Galen's anatomical understanding was based on animal dissections, leading to inaccuracies when applied to human anatomy.

Vesalius

• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) revolutionized anatomy in the 16th century.
• In 1543, Vesalius published "On the Fabric of the Human Body," based on his lectures at the University of Padua.
• Vesalius personally dissected bodies during lectures, deviating from traditional practices
• His detailed examination of the human body's structure was enhanced by Renaissance art and printing technology.
• Vesalius corrected some of Galen's errors, such as the origin of blood vessels being the heart, not the liver.
• Vesalius still adhered to some of Galen's incorrect ideas, like the concept of two separate blood systems.

Harvey

• William Harvey (1578-1657) is renowned for his work on blood circulation.
• Harvey's "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood" was published in 1628, challenging Galen's physiological principles.
• Through observation and experiments, Harvey proved that blood circulates, with the heart as its starting point.
• He established that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries, completing a circuit throughout the body.
• Acceptance of Harvey's ideas was gradual, gaining traction in the 1660s with the discovery of capillaries.
• Harvey's work laid the groundwork for modern physiology.

Chemistry

• Chemistry emerged as a science in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Robert Boyle (1627-1691) conducted experiments on gases, leading to Boyle's law.
• Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with the pressure exerted on it.
• Boyle proposed that matter consists of atoms (chemical elements), rejecting the medieval belief in uniform components.
• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) developed a system for naming chemical elements.
• Lavoisier demonstrated that water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, establishing chemical combination rules.
• Marie-Anne Lavoisier collaborated with her husband, translating works and creating engravings for his publications.

Science and Society

• Literate mercantile and propertied elites were drawn to the new science for its potential to exploit resources.
• Early scientists demonstrated practical applications of science for industrial and technological needs.
• Galileo emphasized the usefulness of mechanics for construction, appealing to the educated elite.
• Science became integrated into the high culture of Europe's wealthy elites, separate from popular culture.
• Princes and kings supported scientists for prestige and practical reasons, including military applications.
• Absolute rulers recognized the need to control scientific knowledge, as seen in the French Academy.
• Louis XIV controlled the French Academy by appointing members and funding salaries.

Science and Religion

• Galileo's conflict with the Catholic Church marked the beginning of the conflict between science and religion.
• Churches believed religion to be the ultimate measure, while scientists sought to differentiate religious and natural knowledge.
• Galileo argued that scientific discussions should rely on observations and demonstrations, not solely on scripture.
• He believed the Bible uses language accessible to all, while nature operates under immutable laws.
• Galileo questioned the Church's authority to define physical reality based on biblical interpretations.