Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information known as?
What is the capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information known as?
Memory
What type of memory is concerned with personal experiences and specific events in one's life?
What type of memory is concerned with personal experiences and specific events in one's life?
Declarative memory includes motor skills and behavioral habits.
Declarative memory includes motor skills and behavioral habits.
False
______ memory is a temporary storage of information in the sensory areas of the brain.
______ memory is a temporary storage of information in the sensory areas of the brain.
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Match the emotion theory with its description:
Match the emotion theory with its description:
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What is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events?
What is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events?
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What are the principles of perception? (Select the correct options)
What are the principles of perception? (Select the correct options)
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Working memory is responsible for maintaining long-term memories.
Working memory is responsible for maintaining long-term memories.
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ADHD stands for Attention deficit hyperactivity ____.
ADHD stands for Attention deficit hyperactivity ____.
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Match the following memory storage stages with their descriptions:
Match the following memory storage stages with their descriptions:
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What brain regions are involved in mental images and concepts?
What brain regions are involved in mental images and concepts?
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Which problem type is characterized by clear goals, solution paths, and expected solutions?
Which problem type is characterized by clear goals, solution paths, and expected solutions?
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Deductive reasoning follows logically from some statements or premises.
Deductive reasoning follows logically from some statements or premises.
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Gestalt psychology hypothesizes that people tend to organize visual elements into groups or 'unified wholes' when certain principles are applied, such as ____________.
Gestalt psychology hypothesizes that people tend to organize visual elements into groups or 'unified wholes' when certain principles are applied, such as ____________.
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Match the following psychoanalytic theory components with their descriptions:
Match the following psychoanalytic theory components with their descriptions:
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Who is the developer of Cognitive Therapy?
Who is the developer of Cognitive Therapy?
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What is the source of problems according to Cognitive Therapy?
What is the source of problems according to Cognitive Therapy?
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy focuses mainly on the past.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy focuses mainly on the past.
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What are examples of negative personal stressors? (Select all that apply)
What are examples of negative personal stressors? (Select all that apply)
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What are the 4 A's of handling stress?
What are the 4 A's of handling stress?
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Match the therapist type with their description:
Match the therapist type with their description:
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Desensitization and relaxation techniques are part of behavior-learning therapy.
Desensitization and relaxation techniques are part of behavior-learning therapy.
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Explain the Freudian concept of personality development in 5 parts.
Explain the Freudian concept of personality development in 5 parts.
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What type of cure did Freud popularize in psychotherapy?
What type of cure did Freud popularize in psychotherapy?
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What are the two methods that Freud incorporated into psychoanalytic therapy?
What are the two methods that Freud incorporated into psychoanalytic therapy?
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What is behaviour therapy based on?
What is behaviour therapy based on?
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What is the goal of behavioural therapy?
What is the goal of behavioural therapy?
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What are the types of behavioural therapy?
What are the types of behavioural therapy?
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How can we use classical conditioning in behavioural therapy?
How can we use classical conditioning in behavioural therapy?
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What does behaviour therapy help with?
What does behaviour therapy help with?
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Who proposed Humanistic therapy?
Who proposed Humanistic therapy?
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What is personality?
What is personality?
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What are the common types of personality disorder according to DSM-5?
What are the common types of personality disorder according to DSM-5?
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What does BPD stand for?
What does BPD stand for?
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What is music therapy?
What is music therapy?
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Which stage of Emotion Focused Therapy (EFT) involves relationship and awareness?
Which stage of Emotion Focused Therapy (EFT) involves relationship and awareness?
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Schizophrenia is a disorder characterized by psychotic symptoms and social dysfunction that persists for at least ____ months.
Schizophrenia is a disorder characterized by psychotic symptoms and social dysfunction that persists for at least ____ months.
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Psychotherapy is the main method of treatment for depression.
Psychotherapy is the main method of treatment for depression.
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Match the following treatments with their respective disorders:
Match the following treatments with their respective disorders:
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What are the clinical features of individuals with borderline personality disorder?
What are the clinical features of individuals with borderline personality disorder?
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What are some theories related to borderline personality disorder?
What are some theories related to borderline personality disorder?
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How is antisocial personality disorder characterized clinically?
How is antisocial personality disorder characterized clinically?
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Which family of theories focuses on individuals' perceptions and appraisal of stressors to determine stress?
Which family of theories focuses on individuals' perceptions and appraisal of stressors to determine stress?
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Study Notes
Psychological Processes
- Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior potentials due to experience and interaction with the environment
- Types of Learning:
- Association Learning: concerned with events occurring together during the learning process
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): focuses on pairing two stimuli to lead to new behavior
- Principles:
- Acquisition
- Extinction
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Generalization
- Discrimination
- Principles:
- Operant Conditioning: a response or behavior is influenced by consequences
- Through operant conditioning, individuals learn to increase certain behaviors followed by reinforcing stimuli and suppress others followed by punishing stimuli
- Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning): focuses on pairing two stimuli to lead to new behavior
- Observational Learning: learning through observation and imitation
- Association Learning: concerned with events occurring together during the learning process
Clinical Interview
- A conversation between a psychologist and client intended to help the psychologist diagnose and treat the patient
- Structure of Interview:
- "A conversation with a purpose"
- Degree of structure: some interviews allow for free drift, while others are highly directive and goal-oriented
- Types of Clinical Interviews:
- Structured Interview: uses simple questions to get detailed and specific information from the patient
- Examples: Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS), Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV (SCID)
- Unstructured Interview: asks open-ended questions to encourage the patient to expand on their answers
- Semi-structured Interview: offers a balance between structured and unstructured interviews, allowing for discussion and exploration of specific areas
- Structured Interview: uses simple questions to get detailed and specific information from the patient
- Types of Clinical Interviews:
- Intake Interview: the first interview with a patient, focusing on their mental and physical health history, and goals for therapy
- Mental Status Exam: a clinical interview that assesses a patient's behavior, appearance, attitude, and movements, as well as their answers to questions
Neural Mechanisms of Attention
- Sensation: the process of receiving and representing stimulus energies from the environment
- Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events
- Principles of Perception:
- Perceptual Selection: selection to see, feel, and process certain stimuli
- Perceptual Integration: organizing and structuring sensory information into a meaningful whole
- Perceptual Comprehension: the ability to understand and interpret sensory information
- Perceptual Constancy: the tendency to perceive objects as having constant shape, size, and brightness despite changes in stimulation
- Attention: the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring others
- ADHD: distractibility, inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Neural Mechanisms of Working Memory
- Working Memory (Short-term Memory): maintains current, but temporary, representations of goal-relevant knowledge
- Encoding: forming new memories, translating information into a form that can be stored in memory
- Storage: maintaining information in memory over a period of time
- Retrieval: the process of searching for and bringing to mind previously stored information
- Theory of Memory Storage:
- Sensory Memory: temporary storage of information in sensory areas of the brain
- Short-term Memory: working memory, holding a small amount of information in awareness for a brief period
- Long-term Memory: storing information for a longer period of time, allowing for retrieval at any later time
Neural Mechanisms of Visual Information Processing
- Selective Attention: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
- Inattentional Blindness: failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere
- Bottom-up Processing: analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
- Top-down Processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as constructing perceptions drawing on experience and expectations
- Visual Areas and Functions:
- V1: feature maps
- V2: higher-order color/brightness, contours, and surfaces
- V4: contours, surfaces, figure/ground, curvature, and shape
- IT: perception/identification
- MT: motion direction/perception
- MST: higher-order motion, flow field
- Parietal: multisensory integration, spatial transformation
Clinical Relevance
- Ventral Pathway Lesion: deficit in shape perception (what an object is) coupled with intact visuo-motor functions (how to act on an object)
- Dorsal Pathway Lesion: deficit in moving using visual guidance (how to act on an object) coupled with deficit of visual spatial relations, but intact visual perception (what an object is)
- Hemispatial Neglect: a damage to hemisphere of the brain, resulting in a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of the field of vision### Motivation and Emotion
- Motivation: process of starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities
- Instinct theory: complex, innate, biological behavior pattern characteristic of a species
- Drive reduction theory: internal state created by a physiological need
- Optimum theory: maintaining a certain level of stimulation or activity, best under moderate arousal
- Incentive theory: motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external stimuli
- Cognitive theory: thinking about, planning, and exercising control over individual behavior
- Motives conflict:
- Approach-approach conflict: attracted to two equally desirable goals
- Avoidance-avoidance conflict: choosing between two equally unpleasant alternatives
- Approach-avoidance conflict: one goal has both good and bad aspects
- Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: choosing among several goals with good and bad features
Emotion Theory
- James-Lange theory: emotion occurs as a result of physiological reactions to events
- Cannon-Bard theory: physiological arousal and emotional experience produced simultaneously by the same nerve impulse
- Schachter-Singer theory (Cognitive perspectives on emotion): joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal
- Opponent-process theory: experience of one emotion suppresses the other (e.g., fear-relief, pleasure-pain)
Thinking and Consciousness
- Thinking: manipulation of mental representations of information
- Brain regions involved: medial temporal lobe, lateral parietal cortex, medial parietal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex
- Mental images: representations of objects, events, or scenes in the mind
- Concepts: categorization of objects, events, or people that share common properties (prototypes)
- Problem-solving: higher-order mental process that requires moving a given state toward a desired goal state
- Ill-defined and well-defined problems
- Reasoning and decision-making:
- Deductive reasoning: follows logically from some statements or premises
- Inductive reasoning: attempts to infer new conclusions from available evidence and past experience
- Consciousness: awareness of an individual's perceptions, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment
- Characteristics of consciousness:
- Subjectivity: individual's perception, thoughts, and feelings
- Uniformity: unified whole experience
- Change: constantly changing
- Initiative: active process
- Levels of consciousness:
- Conscious level: currently attended cognitions and emotions
- Preconscious level: easily retrievable cognitions and emotions
- Unconscious level: difficult or impossible to access cognitions, impulses, desires, and emotions
Gestalt Psychology
- Founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka
- Principles:
- Simplicity: objects perceived in simplest forms
- Continuity: following lines or curves
- Filling in gaps: brain fills in missing details
- Main principles:
- Continuity: smooth, flowing lines
- Closure: single, recognizable pattern
- Similarity: similar elements grouped together
- Proximity: elements close together perceived as related
- Common Region: elements sharing a defined boundary grouped together
- Focal Point: attention-grabbing element
- Figure & Ground: object (figure) vs. background (ground)
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory and Therapy
- Developed by Sigmund Freud
- Emphasizes unconscious motivations and inner forces
- Topographic Model:
- Unconscious: underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses
- Preconscious: accessible cognitions and emotions
- Structural Model (Iceberg Theory):
- ID: impulsive, childlike, and operates on the pleasure principle
- Super-ego: moral component
- Ego: rational, balances ID and Super-ego
- Psychosexual stages of development:
- Oral stage (0-18 months): mouth as focal point of pleasure
- Anal stage (18 months-3 years): anus as focal point of pleasure
- Phallic stage (3-6 years): genitals as focal point of pleasure
- Latency stage (6 years-puberty): repression of sexual desires
- Genital stage (puberty onwards): mature sexuality
- Ego-defense mechanisms: coping with reality and maintaining self-image
- Life and death instincts: life drive (Eros) and death drive (Thanatos)
Behaviorism and Behavior Therapy
- Classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson
- Operant conditioning: B.F. Skinner
- Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
- Behavior therapy: based on classical and operant conditioning
- Goal: reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate unwanted ones
- Types of behavioral therapy:
- Applied behavior analysis
- Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT)
- Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
- Exposure therapy### Classical Conditioning in Behavioural Therapy
- Ways to alter behaviour using classical conditioning:
- Aversion therapy: pairing undesirable behaviour with an aversive stimulus to reduce the behaviour
- Flooding: exposing people to fear-invoking objects/situations intensely and rapidly to treat phobias
- Systematic Desensitization: gradual exposure to feared objects/situations while learning relaxation techniques to treat phobias and anxiety disorders
Behaviour Therapy Applications
- Helps with:
- Bipolar disorder
- Alcohol/substance abuse disorders
- Anxiety
- ADHD
- Autism spectrum disorders
- BPD
- Depression
- Eating disorders
- Panic disorders
- Phobias
- OCD
Humanism and Humanistic Therapy
- Proposed by:
- Abraham Maslow
- Carl Rogers
- Maslow's focus:
- Unconscious aspects of personality
- Acknowledging unconscious motives
- People are free-willed, seeking to satisfy innate motives in a way that fits their style and environment
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
- Physiological needs
- Personal safety
- Love and belonging
- Self-esteem
- Self-actualization (rarely achieved) – full development of one’s potential
- Peak experiences:
- Transcending time and place
- Unity with the universe
- Sense of power and wonder
Personality Analysis of Freud
- Definition of personality:
- Pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviour unique to each person
- Stable for one person, develops over time
- Maturing, different life experiences, and changing circumstances affect personality
- Flexibility to learn from past experiences and cope with life more effectively
- Approaches to personality:
- Psychoanalytic approach (Freudian concepts)
- Trait approach
- Behavioural and social learning approach
- Humanistic approach
- Biological approach
Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality
- Concepts developed by Sigmund Freud
- Freudian concepts:
- Id, Ego, and Superego
- Personality development concepts/phases
Personality Disorders
- Common types according to DSM-5:
- Cluster A:
- Paranoid personality disorder
- Schizoid personality disorder
- Schizotypal personality disorder
- Cluster B:
- Antisocial personality disorder
- Borderline personality disorder
- Histrionic personality disorder
- Narcissistic personality disorder
- Cluster C:
- Avoidant personality disorder
- Dependent personality disorder
- Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
- Cluster A:
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
- Clinical features:
- Mood instability
- Interpersonal relationship instability
- Explosive short-lived relationships
- May drink/abuse drugs heavily
- At risk of developing depressive disorders, anxiety, and eating disorders
- Borders between neurological disease and personality disorder
- Theories:
- Greater activation of amygdala in response to pictures or emotional faces
- Decreased metabolism in the prefrontal cortex
- Impulsive and aggressive behaviours linked to low levels of serotonin
- Poorly developed views of themselves and others, stemming from poor early relationships with caregivers
- Treatments:
- Drug treatment – reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression (lithium, anticonvulsants, antidepressants)
- Psychodynamic therapy – helping persons gain a more realistic and positive sense of self, learn adaptive skills, and correct dichotomous thinking
- Group therapy – working with interpersonal problems of BPD patients
Antisocial Personality Disorder
- Clinical features:
- Impairment in ability to form positive relationships with others
- Tendency to engage in behaviours that violate basic social norms and values
- Tendency to engage in impulsive and aggressive behaviours
- Self-centred, selfish, sometimes cruel, cold, and lacking in affection
- Unable to appreciate the needs or feelings of others
- Often exploit others with whom they are involved
- Theories:
- Family and twin studies support a genetic component to the etiology
- Aggressiveness in people with antisocial personality disorders may be linked to the hormone testosterone
- ADHD in children
- Deficits in verbal skills and executive functions of the brain
- Treatments:
- SSRIs have been used to control aggressive behaviours
- Lithium for reducing impulsive aggression
- Psychotherapy helps people gain control over their anger and impulsive behaviours, increasing empathy
Schizoid Personality Disorder
- Clinical features:
- Little concern or interest in other people or society
- Prefer to be isolated
- Internal activity – sometimes great in art, research, other creative activities
- Little expression of emotion
- Sometimes transfers to schizophrenia; considered as signs of pathogenesis of schizophrenia
- Treatments:
- Talk therapy and some medications
- Schizoid PD people not necessarily suffering from disorder
- If associated with schizophrenia – requires psychiatric treatment
Theoretical Perspective on Stress
- Fight or flight response (Walter Cannon):
- Sequence of internal activities triggered when an organism is faced with a threat
- Prepares the body for combat and struggle or for running away to safety
- Tend-and-befriend response (Shelley Taylor):
- Response to stressors that is hypothesized to be typical for females
- Stressors prompt females to protect their offspring and join social groups to reduce vulnerability
- General adaptation syndrome (Hans Selye)
- Lazarus’s model (Richard Lazarus):
- Neither the stressor nor response could define stress
- The individual’s perception and appraisal of the stressor determines if it would create stress
Stress in Psychology
- Definition of stress:
- Pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope
- Elements of stress:
- Stressors
- Stress responses
- Genetic and environmental factors
- Concept of stress in psychology:
- How vulnerable you are personally to becoming stressed out depends on various factors
- Includes 3 related elements: stressors, stress response, and genetic and environmental factors
- Stressor characteristics:
- External characteristics (intensity, duration, number)
- Internal characteristics (coping skills, self-efficacy, appraisal)
4 A's of Stress Management
- Avoid unnecessary stress:
- Learn to say “no” – know your limits and stick to them
- Avoid people who stress you out
- Take control of your environment
- Alter the situation:
- If you cannot avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it
- Be more assertive and communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way
- Be willing to compromise – willing to bend a little
- Manage your time better
- Adapt to the stressor:
- Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective
- Adjust your standards – stop setting yourself up for failure by demanding perfection
- Set a reasonable standard
- Accept the things you cannot change:
- Some sources of stress are unavoidable
- The best way to cope with stress is to accept things as they are
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Description
This quiz covers the fundamentals of medical psychology, including psychological processes, basic theories, clinical interview, and evaluation. It is a summary of the course written by Fah, Meilin, Hind, Yong, and Alfraid.
