Lectures 3&4 PSYCH2018

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Questions and Answers

Which characteristic distinguishes interval scales from ratio scales?

A score of zero signifies the absence of the measured variable. (correct)

Scores describe categorical groups.

Scores are used to indicate rank order.

Scores represent equal intervals between values.

What is a primary purpose of nominal scales?

To measure the central tendency of a data set.

To assess the variability within a sample.

To classify individuals into distinct categories. (correct)

To rank individuals based on a continuous variable.

Which statistical measure is preferred over mean when outliers are present?

Range

Standard deviation

Median (correct)

Mean absolute deviation

How are ordinal scales primarily used?

To indicate rank order among groups. Signup and view all the answers

Which is a common example of a ratio scale?

Time taken to complete a task. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Descriptive statistics summarize sample data while inferential statistics infer conclusions about populations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of interval scales?

Ranking of scores is essential. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to identify the measurement scale being used?

It guides the selection of appropriate statistical tests. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic that separates probability sampling from nonprobability sampling?

Dependence on random selection. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a variety of probability sampling?

Convenience sampling. Signup and view all the answers

How can researchers ensure that a behavioral measure is valid?

By aligning it with theoretical concepts. Signup and view all the answers

Which scale of measurement would be most appropriate for ranking participants based on their test scores?

Ordinal scale. Signup and view all the answers

What type of information does effective data summarization involve?

Central tendency and variability. Signup and view all the answers

In hypothesis testing, what is the primary purpose of making inferential analyses?

To generalize findings to a larger population. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a criticism of hypothesis testing?

It ignores confidence intervals. Signup and view all the answers

What is the best strategy to enhance database search results in psychology according to search tips?

Utilize advanced search options. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using stratified sampling in research?

To represent the proportions of important subgroups accurately in the sample. Signup and view all the answers

How is reliability defined in the context of measurement?

The consistency and repeatability of measurement results over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method involves selecting individuals based on their availability and convenience?

Convenience sampling Signup and view all the answers

In the evaluation of measurement validity, what does construct validity specifically address?

Whether the measure is correlated with other relevant measures. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes cluster sampling in research design?

Choosing entire groups of individuals who share a common characteristic. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about nonprobability sampling is TRUE?

It is often used when random sampling is impractical or impossible. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity is primarily concerned with whether a measure accurately taps into the construct it is supposed to measure?

Construct validity Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'effect size' typically refer to in the context of statistical testing?

The magnitude of the difference between groups in an experiment. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes basic research in psychology?

It focuses on understanding fundamental psychological phenomena. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes applied research?

It seeks to provide solutions to specific real-world problems. Signup and view all the answers

What does operational definition refer to in psychological research?

Describing a variable in terms of specific operations used to measure it. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research is likely to provide the highest level of mundane realism?

Field research conducted in natural environments. Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical feature of a good empirical question in psychological research?

It requires clearly defined terms and measurable variables. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes qualitative research from quantitative research?

Qualitative research often includes narrative descriptions or interviews. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about replication in psychological science is true?

Replication ensures the reliability and validity of research findings. Signup and view all the answers

How do theories in psychology interact with research outcomes?

Research outcomes can influence and reshape existing theories. Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential characteristic of a good theory according to the provided content?

It must produce a wealth of research. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the nature of theories as described?

Theories should explain phenomena simply and concisely. Signup and view all the answers

What do psychological constructs refer to in the context of theory development?

Hypothetical factors involved in explanations. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between direct replication and conceptual replication in research?

Direct replication reproduces original procedures; conceptual adds new features. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes what is meant by 'serendipitous events' in research?

Unexpected discoveries made while searching for something else. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'falsification' imply in the context of good theories?

Theories must be able to be shown wrong by data. Signup and view all the answers

The phrase 'chance favors the prepared mind' suggests which of the following in scientific inquiry?

A knowledgeable researcher is likely to capitalize on unexpected findings. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a common misunderstanding about theories?

A theory is just a guess without any basis. Signup and view all the answers

What does a Type I error indicate in hypothesis testing?

Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of calculating effect size in research?

To emphasize the magnitude of the difference between variables. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of NHST, what does failing to reject the null hypothesis generally imply?

No significant relationship was found, but caution is required. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors significantly influences statistical power in hypothesis testing?

The sample size obtained for analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What does a confidence interval provide in statistical analysis?

A range in which the population mean is likely to fall. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term 'publication bias' in research findings?

A tendency to publish studies with significant results more frequently than those with non-significant results. Signup and view all the answers

What is typically expected in the alternative hypothesis compared to the null hypothesis?

There is a specified expectation of a relationship or difference. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of a Type II error?

It involves failing to reject a null hypothesis that is false. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Research in Psychology: Methods & Design

The text is about research methods and design, specifically topics covered in an 8th Edition textbook.
Topics covered include the development of research ideas, the nature of psychological theories, the roles of research teams, and creative thinking in science.

Chapter 3: Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology

Chapter Objectives:
- Distinguishing basic and applied research, laboratory and field research, and qualitative and quantitative research.
- Formulating empirical questions and understanding the importance of operational definitions.
- Describing research developed from everyday observations and serendipitous events.
Chapter Objectives Two:
- Describing the key features of a psychological theory.
- Detailing how theories influence and are influenced by empirical research, needing to be productive, parsimonious, and testable.
- Understanding the value of research that replicates and extends prior research
Chapter Objectives Three:
- Identifying direct and conceptual replication, as well as their importance in psychological science.
- Demonstrating examples of creative scientific thinking.
- Using computerized databases (e.g., PsycINFO) to research information about psychology.

Varieties of Psychological Research

The Goals: Basic vs. Applied Research
- Basic Research: Designed to understand fundamental psychological phenomena (e.g., stimulus factors affecting selective attention).
- Applied Research: Designed to shed light on solutions to real-world problems (e.g., effect of cell phone use on driving).
The Setting: Laboratory vs. Field Research
- Laboratory Research: Offers greater control, but often lacks mundane realism.
- Field Research: More realistic, but less control over other variables.
The Data: Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
- Quantitative Research: Employs quantitative data and statistical analysis.
- Qualitative Research: Often involves narrative descriptions or interviews but may utilize quantification of responses occasionally.

Asking Empirical Questions

Empirical Questions: These questions can be answered using data, with variables precisely defined (e.g. Hunger = 12 hours without food; Frustration = consequence of being blocked from a goal).
Operational Definitions: Define variables in terms of a clear set of operations.
Converging Operations: Understanding increases when studies with different operational definitions converge on the same result.

Where to Research Ideas Come From?

Personal Observations: Including serendipitous events.
Psychological Theories: Theories often lead to empirical research, influenced by research outcomes, and require characteristics like productivity, parsimony, and testability.
Existing Research: Including the question of “what’s next?” for future research opportunities.

Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity

Observations: Examples such as helping behavior following a tragic event (e.g., Kitty Genovese murder).
Serendipitous Events: Discovering something new while searching for something else (e.g., Skinner’s first extinction curve).

Developing Research from Theory

Nature of Theory: Theories summarize, organize, and explain, often including various constructs and hypothetical factors involved in the attempt to understand.
Theory-Research Relationship: Hypotheses are deduced from theories, and research outcomes either support or fail to support theories. Importantly, theories are never “true” or “false.”
Attributes of Good Theories: These include productivity, falsification (good theories can be shown wrong), and parsimony (good theories provide simple explanations).

Developing Research from Other Research

Research Teams and the “What’s Next?” Question: Research programs often consist of series of interrelated studies.
Replication: Includes the concepts of direct and conceptual replication of existing research

Creative Thinking in Science

Prepared Mind: Chance favors the prepared mind (Pasteur).
Maze Learning: How initial knowledge can lead to improvements or limitations in subsequent research design

Reviewing the Literature

Computerized Database Searches: Researchers should utilize databases such as PsycINFO to find relevant research.
Search Tips: Utilize advanced search options, truncated search terms, and trial and error strategies.
Search Results: Pay attention to the source of information (e.g., journals, books, dissertations)

Summary

Research involves numerous approaches (basic vs. applied; lab vs. field; quantitative vs. qualitative).
Research questions are based on a desire to better understand psychological phenomena.
Research ideas are drawn from observations, theories, and prior research.
Research proficiency is improved by exploring the relevant literature, for instance through PsycINFO or similar databases.

Chapter 4: Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing

Chapter Objectives:
- Distinguishing probability and non-probability sampling.
- Describing three types of probability sampling and knowing when each is optimal.
- Recognizing various behavioral measures utilized in psychology.
- Identifying constructs and measurable behaviors used to study them.

Additional Chapter Objectives

Reliability and Validity: Identifying characteristics required of behavioral measures to be reliable (free from measurement error) and valid (measuring what's intended).
Measurement Scales: Recognizing nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales and their applications.
Summarizing Data: Using relevant statistical measures of central tendency and variability, as well as visual displays (histograms).
Hypothesis Testing: Understanding the logic and process for inferential analysis of data concerning population characteristics.
Criticisms and Alternatives: Recognizing limitations of hypothesis testing, including suggestions of alternative approaches (e.g., confidence intervals).

Sampling Procedures

Probability Sampling:
- Random Sampling: Each member of a population has an equal chance of selection in a sample.
- Stratified Sampling: Proportions of subgroups in a population are precisely represented in the sample (e.g., 75% female, 25% male).
- Cluster Sampling: Random selection of clusters of individuals sharing a common feature (e.g., all first-year students living on campus).
Non-probability Sampling:
- Convenience Sampling: Selecting subjects who are available and convenient.
- Purposive Sampling: Selecting subjects based on specific criteria.
- Quota Sampling: Similar to stratified, but non-random.
- Snowball Sampling: Participants recruit additional participants.

Construct Validity

Developing measures from constructs like habituation (e.g., measuring changes in preferential looking time), reaction time (measuring the time required for a response).

Evaluating Measures

Reliability: Minimizing measurement error; it is the consistency and repeatability of the measurements.
Validity: Reflects if a measure assesses what it intends to measure. Includes content, criterion, and construct validity. The latter includes convergent and discriminant validity.

Scales of Measurement

Nominal: Classifying individuals or events into categories (e.g., guilty/not guilty).
Ordinal: Indicating rank order (e.g., class rank).
Interval: Quantities with equal intervals between scores, but zero is arbitrary (e.g., temperature, some IQ or personality tests).
Ratio: Quantities with equal intervals and a meaningful zero (e.g., reaction time, number of words recalled).

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics: Summarizing data from a sample (measures of central tendency like mean, median, mode; measures of variability like range, standard deviation, variance). Visual displays include histograms.
Inferential statistics: Making inferences about a population based on a sample (t-tests, ANOVAs). Null Hypothesis Significance Tests (NHST). Includes Type I and Type II errors, effect size, confidence intervals, and power.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Test your understanding of measurement scales, including nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. This quiz also covers key statistical concepts and methods, such as descriptive and inferential statistics and the role of outliers. Perfect for students learning about statistics and research methods.