مدخل إلى السياسة العامة والشؤون الحكومية

• Introduction to Public Policy and Governmental Affairs
• IAPP 602
• Spring 2025
• Prepared by Dr. Mohammed Ouria

Definition of Public Policy

• Karl Fredrich defines public policy as a proposed course of action by a person, group, or government to clarify opportunities and overcome limitations to achieve a specific goal.
• James Anderson defines it as a "purposeful course of action followed by an individual or group in dealing with a problem or matter of concern."
• It is the policy developed by government bodies through their responsibilities.

Key Aspects of Public Policy

• Public policy includes activities undertaken by the government, such as providing public services like education, healthcare, roads, and housing.
• Non-governmental or informal entities can contribute to or influence the shaping and development of certain public policies.
• Public policies encompass what governments do regarding an issue or problem.
• Policies are either positive or negative and are the way of solving existing problems.

Reasons for Interest in Public Policy

• Contemporary political systems are highly interested in public policy
• The effectiveness of a political system depends on adopting well-considered public policy.
• This requires collaboration among all components and elements of the system
• Collaboration should have a team spirit and be guided by a well-studied scientific methodology that is effectively applicable on the ground.
• The ability to overcome challenges differentiates developed political systems from struggling ones.

Concept of Public Policy and Related Concepts

• The concept of public policy overlaps with concepts such as the political system, public administration, and political decision-making.
• The summary will highlight some of these concepts.

Politics

• The term "politics" is derived from the word "to govern" which implies taming and leading.
• It is a human activity related to authority and the state.
• State policy is defined as "an action accomplished from a perspective of power or authority."
• Others define it as "the art of governance."

Political System

• Defined as a set of elements whose mission is to maintain society as a living entity managed by political authority.

Public Administration

• Public administration is defined as the coordination of individual and collective efforts to implement public policy.
• The relationship between public policy and public administration is that of the planner and decision-maker to the implementer.

Political Decision

• Political decision-making is generally defined as a course of action chosen by a decision-maker as the most appropriate means to achieve desired goals to resolve a pressing issue.
• The political decision-making process involves a series of individual or collective responses that culminate in selecting the most suitable approach to address a specific situation.

Authorities in the State Related to Policymaking

• The definition of authority refers to the supreme reference point with influence or the capable social entity that imposes its will.
• The relevant entities are acknowledged by other bodies in terms of leadership, judgment, and dominance over community affairs.
• Authority is, therefore, the authority of governance or management of the community.

Branches of Authority

• Governance/management authority is divided into three branches based on tasks:
• Legislative authority
• Executive authority
• Judicial authority
• These authorities are integral to policymaking within the state.
• The principle in modern politics is the separation of these authorities to enhance oversight and accountability

Principle of Separation of Powers

• This principle is based on the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers in Europe.
• Montesquieu (1689-1755) in his book "The Spirit of the Laws."
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) in "The Social Contract."
• The political thought underlying the three authorities is based on assigning specific tasks to each authority in managing the affairs of individuals and the state.
• Cooperation should exist among these authorities, but no single authority should overstep its boundaries or act independently.
• There should be a form of mutual oversight to prevent tyranny and protect the rights of individuals and entities.

The Legislative Authority

• The legislative authority is the branch that enacts laws in a state.
• Examples of Legislative Authorities:
• America: The legislative branch consists of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate, which together form the Congress, and both are elected.
• Britain: The legislative branch consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, with the former being elected and the latter appointed.
• France: The legislative branch consists of the French Senate, which is the upper house, and the National Assembly, which is the lower house, and both are elected.

Functions of the Legislative Authority

• Enacting laws: The primary function is to enact laws for the affairs of the state and lives of individuals, amending or repealing them, and approving laws after they are issued.
• Representation: Functions as an elected representative body through which members express the views of society and represent the interests of various groups within the community.
• Oversight Function: Monitoring the internal and external policies of the government through deliberation and opening a public political dialogue that includes a research and debate of the government's policies.

The Executive Authority

• The executive authority comprises individuals responsible for implementing laws, maintaining security, and managing governmental interests.
• In a presidential system, the executive authority is headed by a president.
• In a parliamentary system, the executive authority has two heads: a president or monarch who holds a ceremonial position without real powers, and ministers who are responsible to the parliament for implementing government policies.

Key Aspects of the Executive Authority

• The executive authority is the largest official institution within the state, comprising all state employees except those in the legislative and judicial fields.
• The responsibilities of the executive authority include :
• Implementing laws issued by the legislative and judicial branches.
• Organizing foreign relations and managing military affairs.
• Managing public administration.

The Judicial Authority

• The judicial authority interprets and applies laws, implementing them in cases brought before it.
• It resolves disputes between individuals or between individuals and the state or its institutions concerning matters presented to the courts.

Functions of the Judicial Authority

• Resolving disputes and applying the law.
• Protecting the rights and freedoms of individuals.
• Reviewing the constitutionality of laws.
• Overseeing the compliance of the legislative and executive branches with the constitution.

Introduction to Public Policy Analysis

• This approach involves addressing existing and anticipated societal problems, selecting appropriate alternatives to resolve them through a methodology of prioritization based on value-driven and objective criteria, and informed by data.
• The practical application of public policy analysis has been in use since the emergence of authority in societies.
• The term "public policy analysis" as a scientific discipline is used in the academic sphere from the period following World War II, among its pioneers were Harold Laswell and Daniel Lerner.
• The concept of public policy analysis continues to evolve, drawing on insights from humanities and applied sciences.

Factors Leading to the Development of Analytical Studies

• Factors in development of analytical studies:
• Significant progress in science and growth in human knowledge, particularly in logical and practical expertise.
• Advancements in tools and methods for managing information to collect, store, retrieve, analyze, and study it, as well as advancements in communication technologies.
• The emergence of systems analysis as a branch of mathematics with applications supported by the use of computers in social sciences.

Definitions of the Term Public Policy Analysis

• Gilbert
• Public policy analysis is a holistic and integrated term.
• It involves purposefully identifying public policy alternatives that can maximize the desired objectives within existing environmental circumstances and constraints.
• Bintil
• Public policy analysis is an approach that assists decision-makers.
• Decision-makers select optimal alternative available to solve an existing problem.
• Decision-makers use evidence-based methods to select the best option.
• Hassan Absher Al-Tayeb
• Public policy implementation is an organized effort for implementing public policy.
• Aims to assess a course of action, based on criteria such as strengths and weaknesses, by utilizing information relating to the course of action.
• Uses problem solving techniques to analyze different options to find the best decision in the given circumstance.

Stages of Public Policy Analysis

• Feeling the Problem
• Separation of the symptoms from the problem
• Acknowledging the Problem
• Identifying and visualizing the problem
• Restrictions to consider
• Exploring potential alternatives
• Assessing potential alternatives
• Choosing the best alternative
• Implementing the chosen alternative
• Implementing the chosen policy on trial
• Implementation Follow-Up
• Gather data from policy implementation

First Stage: Problem Diagnostics

• This stage aims to understand the problem clearly and precisely.
• It involves asking questions to define and visualize the issue, such as:
• What is the nature of the problem?
• What driving force led to the emergence of the problem?
• What boundaries separate the core of the problem from its resulting symptoms?
• It's essential to identify the problem accurately, rationally, and unemotionally to reach the heart of the matter.

Second Stage: Information Integration

• Information is the foundation of public policy analysis.
• Data can help increase knowledge of the problem and is the corner stone in selecting, analyzing, and selecting the best solution.

Characteristics

• Availability of the following characteristics:
• Objectivity and accuracy: Freedom from personal considerations.
• Comprehensiveness: Availability of all information related to the nature of the problem
• Relevance: Information has significance and impact in defining the dimensions of the problem or identifying the best possible solutions.

Third Stage: Exploring Possible Alternatives

• A high degree of understanding, imagination, creativity, and flexibility is required to gather information and explore all possible solutions to the problem.
• This stage involves identifying all feasible alternatives.
• Identifying all feasible alternatives will define the cost and the expected return of alternative solutions.

Fourth Stage: Evaluating Alternatives

• Develop criteria for prioritizing the solution based of predetermined priorities.
• Evaluative criterias:
• Cost of implementation.
• Timeframe.
• Ease of implementation.
• Expected benefit.
• Completeness of the solution for the issue at hand.

Fifth Stage: Identifying the Best Alternative

• Choosing best value is the alternative that provides the best solution to the problem and satisfies all the elements.
• The alternative should also be available, feasible with existing resources.
• The alternative should take into account all circumstances.

Sixth Stage: Implementing the Chosen Alternative

• The chosen alternative is first put in place on a trial bases before being fully adopted.
• The alternative can be adapted to find the best solution.

Seventh Stage: Implementation Follow-Up

• A system should be put in place to monitor the adoption of the system.
• The system should be continuously assessed to allow the ability to revert to earlier stages, if need be.

Areas of Benefit from Public Policy Implementation

• 1- Defining strategic options:
• Public policy implementation relies on the maxim: better understanding of past enables better anticipation of future outcomes.
• Strategic option:
• A strategic option assesses government infrastructure to anticipate future outcomes.
• Assess the needs of the government, for example, its approach towards decision making.

Strategic Questions

• The key objective for establishing a future path that may face difficulties is to identify the next most important steps. - The key objective for establishing a future path that may face difficulties is to identify the next most important steps.
  • How will the state define future endeavors?
  • What processes will be put in place to determine progress?
  • What are the environmental constraints and how will alternatives be enacted.

Planning - Budget Allocation

• Planning is a progressive development tool, that assists in budget allocation.
• It takes into account all factors and needs of the population.
• Realism
• Be aware of the social dynamic of a group
• The plan accommodates the various requirements of the community.
• Comprehensiveness
• To gain a full view of the problem all elements need be accounted for such as indirect and direct elements
• For example, a plan to introduce modern elements to new community should take into account social dynamics.
• Flexibility
• Plans should be flexible enough to account for alterations to the environment
• Integration and coordination
• Ensure that processes of carrying out are effective to ensure full coordination with the all elements in the program.

Operational Efficiency

• Operational efficiency is the idea of carrying something out in the most efficient manner possible.
• The aim is to achieve the lowest expenditure.

Operational Efficiency Factors

• The following must be maintained:
• High quality
• Achieve equality
• In research and development
• Quantitative methods can provide a means of optimization

Implementation Analysis - Program Evaluation

• It is possible to assess existing projects and programs to highlight areas of weakness that could be improved.
• In this instance it is possible to carry out:
• Cost analysis and monitoring of programs