Matter, elements, and volume

• Study notes generated below

Chapter 1, Section 2: Vocabulary

• Matter has mass and takes up space
• Mass measures the amount of matter in an object
• Volume is the amount of 3D space an object occupies
• An atom is the smallest unit of an element retaining the element's chemical identity and properties
• A molecule is the smallest unit of an element or compound that retains all of its properties
• An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down and consists of one type of atom
• A compound is a substance that can be broken down into simpler, stable substances
• Extensive properties depend on the amount of matter present, such as volume and mass
• Intensive properties don't depend on the amount of matter, such as melting and boiling points
• A physical property can be observed without changing the substance's identity
• A physical change does not alter the substance's identity
• A change of state is a physical change from one state to another without affecting identity
  • Solids possess definite volume and shape
    • Their particles are tightly packed in fixed positions
  • Liquids possess definite volume but indefinite shape
    • Particles are close but free-flowing
  • Gases possess indefinite volume and shape
    • Their particles are far apart
  • Plasma is a high-temperature, ionized phase of matter, like that found on the sun
• Chemical property is a substance's ability to undergo changes that transform it into different substances
• Chemical change turns one or more substances into different substances
• Reactants are substances that react in a reaction
• Products are substances formed in a reaction
• Mixtures are a blend of 2+ kinds of matter, each retaining its own identity and properties
  • Homogeneous mixtures have uniform composition, like solutions
  • Heterogeneous mixtures lack uniform composition throughout
• Pure substances have a fixed composition and are homogeneous as compounds or elements
• Conservation of Matter states the amount of matter remains the same in a reaction
• Conservation of Energy means energy can be absorbed or released but never created in a reaction
• Separation techniques include paper chromatography, decanting, vaporization, centrifuge, filtration, and distillation

Chapter 1, Section 3: Vocabulary

• Groups form vertical columns in the periodic table
• Periods form horizontal rows in the periodic table
• Metals conduct electricity/heat well
• Malleable materials can be hammered/rolled into sheets
• Ductile materials can be drawn into a fine wire
• Tensile strength is the ability to resist breaking when pulled
• Nonmetals conduct heat/electricity poorly
• Metalloids have some characteristics of metals and nonmetals
• Metals are typically solids at room temperature (except Hg), malleable, ductile, have high tensile strength, and are in Groups 1-13
• Nonmetals are brittle, mostly gases at room temperature, and in Groups 13-17
• Metalloids are on the "stairs" between Groups 13-17, solid at room temperature, and are semiconductors
• Noble Gases are generally unreactive, are gases at room temperature, and in Group 18

Chapter 2, Section 2: Vocabulary

• Quantity has magnitude, size, or amount
• SI is "The International System of Units", a single measurement system
• Derived Units combine base units by multiplying/dividing standard units
• Conversion Factor: a ratio from equality between 2 units used to convert from one to the other
• Dimensional Analysis: a math technique for using units to solve problems involving measurements
• Measurement: quantitative observation consisting of two parts

Chapter 2, Section 3: Vocabulary

• Accuracy: agreement of a value with the true value
• Precision: degree of agreement among measurements made in the same manner
• Significant figures: all certain digits + 1 final estimated digit
• Random error: equal probability measurement will be high or low
• Systematic error: occurs in the same direction each time from poor technique or calibration
• Significant figures rules:
  • Non-zeros are significant
  • Exact numbers have infinite significant figures
  • Conversion factors are typically exact
  • Zeros between non-zeros are significant
  • Zeros in front of non-zeros aren't significant
  • Zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant
  • Zeros to the left of the decimal point significant if a decimal point is there
• Calculations:
  • Multiplication/Division: the answer uses no more significant figures than the measurement with the fewest significant figures
  • Addition/Subtraction: the answer uses the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the measurement having the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point
• Rounding rules:
  • If the digit after the last digit to be retained is greater than 5, then the last digit is increased by 1
  • If the digit after the last digit to be retained is less than 5, then the last digit stays the same
  • If the digit after the last digit to be retained is 5, not followed by non-zero digits, and preceded by an odd digit, then the last digit should be increased by 1
  • If the digit after the last digit to be retained is 5, not followed by non-zero digits, and preceded by an even digit, then the last digit should stay the same

Chapter 3, Section 1: Laws

• Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed during chemical/physical changes.
• Law of Definite Proportions: A chemical compound contains the same elements in the same mass proportions regardless of sample size/source.
• Law of Multiple Proportions: If 2 or more different compounds are composed of the same 2 elements, then the ratio of the masses of the 2nd element combined with a certain mass of the 1st element is always a ratio of small whole numbers.
• Dalton's Atomic Theory is that elements are composed of atoms, and only whole numbers of atoms combine to form compounds
  1. All matter is composed of small particles called atoms
  2. Atoms of an element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties
  3. Atoms can't be subdivided, created, and destroyed
  4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds
  5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, and rearranged
• Modern Theory:
  • (2) Atoms of an element have a characteristic average mass, which is unique to that element
  • (3) Atoms can't be subdivided, created, and destroyed in ordinary chemical reactions; however, these changes can occur in nuclear reactions

Chapter 3, Section 2: Vocabulary

• Atom: The smallest particle of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element
• Nuclear Forces: Short-range proton-neutron, proton-proton, and neutron-neutron forces that hold the nuclear particles together
• Plum Pudding Model:
  • Negative electrons are spread evenly throughout the positive charge of the rest of the atom
  • This model was disproved
• Rutherford's Theory:
  • The atom is mostly empty space
    • Rutherford tested this by sending alpha particles through gold atoms
    • This actually proved that the nucleus exists

Chapter 3, Section 3: Vocabulary

• Atomic Number: the number of protons in each atom of an element
• Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different masses
• Mass Number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope
• Nuclide: the general term for a specific isotope of an element
• Average Atomic Mass: the weighted average of the atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes of an element
• Mole: the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of C-12
• Avogadro's Number: the number of particles in exactly 1 mol of a pure substance (6.02 x 10²³)
• Molar Mass: the mass per 1 mol of a pure substance (g/mol)

Chapter 4, Section 1: Vocabulary

• Electromagnetic Radiation exists as a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels
• Electromagnetic Spectrum: all forms of electromagnetic radiation
• Wavelength (λ): the distance between peaks of adjacent waves
• Frequency (v): the number of waves that pass a given point in 1 s
• Photoelectric Effect: the emissions of electrons from a metal when light shines on it
• Quantum: the minimum amount of energy that can be lost or gained by an electron
• Photon: a particle of energy having a rest mass of zero and carrying a quantum of energy
• Ground State: lowest energy state of an electron
• Excited State: a state in which an electron has a higher potential energy than the ground state
• Emission-Line Spectrum: a narrow beam of emitted light through a prism, separating into 4 bands of color
• Continuous Spectrum: a continuous range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
• Bright Line Spectrum: emitted light from excited electrons as they drop to lower energy states
• 7 Types of Electromagnetic Radiation: radio waves, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma ray
• Frequency is calculated as waves/second
• c = νλ where c is the speed of light (3.00 x 10⁸ m/s)
• E = hv where h is Planck's Constant (6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J x s) and E = hc/λ

Chapter 4, Section 2: Vocabulary

• Quantum Theory mathematically describes the wave properties of electrons and other very small particles
• Orbital: A 3D region around the nucleus that indicates the probable location of an electron
• Quantum Numbers: specifies the properties of atomic orbitals and of electrons in orbitals
• Principal Quantum Number (n)
  • Indicates the main energy level occupied by the electron
  • n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
  • n = 1 is closest to the nucleus and lowest in energy
  • The number of orbitals possible per energy level (or "shell") is equal to n²
• Angular Momentum Quantum Number (1)
  • Indicates the shape of the orbital
  • Number of orbital shapes = n
  • 1 = 0, 1, 2, 3
  • I is less than or equal to n
  • s=0,p=1,d=2,f=3

Chapter 4, Section 3: Vocabulary

• Indicates the orientation of the orbital around the nucleus
  • m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
  • s- m = 0
  • p- m = -1, 0, 1
  • d- m = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
  • f- m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 Spin Quantum Number
• indicates an electron's fundamental spin states in an orbital
• 2 possible spin values: +½ and -½
• a single orbital holds only two electrons, which must have opposite spins

Chapter 4, Section 3: Vocab continued

• Electron Configuration: the electron arrangement in an atom
• Highest Occupied Energy Level: the electron containing energy level with the highest principal quantum number
• Inner Shell Electrons: electrons that are not in the highest energy level
• Octet Rule: filling the highest energy level s and p electrons with 8 electrons
  • Paramagnetic: unpaired electrons attract into a magnetic field, Ex: 1s²2s²2p²
  • Diamagnetic: paired electrons slightly repel a magnetic field, Ex: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²

Chapter 4, Section 3: Principles/Rules

• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Impossible to simultaneously determine the position and velocity of an electron/any other particle.
• Pauli Exclusion Principle: No 2 electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
• Hund's Rule: Orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin
• Aufbau Principle: An electron occupies its lowest-energy orbital

Chapter 21, Section 1: Vocabulary

• Nucleons- protons and neutrons
• Nuclide- an atom
• Mass Defect- describes the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its particles
• Nuclear Binding Energy describes the energy released when a nucleus is formed from nucleons
• Binding Energy per Nucleon defines the binding energy divided by its nucleon number in the nucleus
• Band of Stability characterizes the range of stable nuclei over a neutron-proton ratios
• Nuclear Shell Model models nucleons existing in different energy levels/shells in the nucleus
• Magic Numbers identifies the numbers of nucleons that identify complete nuclear energy levels (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126)
• Nuclear Reaction marks a reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom
• Transmutation notes a change in the identity of a nucleus as a result of a change in its protons' number

Chapter 21, Section 1: Parameters of Nuclear Stability

• Binding Energy per Nucleon
  • higher = stable with tightly held nucleons
  • lower = unstable with loosely held nucleons
  • Neutron: Proton Ratio
    • small = 1:1
    • large = 1.5:1
    • Number of Nucleons
      • even = more stable
      • odd = less stable
      • Completed Energy Level = Stable

Chapter 21, Section 2 Vocabulary

• Decay: The process of emitting radiation by radioisotopes.
• Radioactive Decay: The spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a slightly lighter nucleus, accompanied by emission of particles, electromagnetic radiation, or both.
• Nuclear Radiation: Particle/electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus during radioactive decay.
• Radioactive Nuclide: An unstable nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay.
• Alpha Particle: A particle containing 2 protons and neutrons bound emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
• Beta Particle: An electron emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
• Positron: A particle that has the same mass as an electron, but with a positive charge, and is emitted from the nucleus during some kinds of radioactive decay.
• Electron Capture: When an inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus of its own atom.
• Gamma Rays: High-energy electromagnetic waves emitted from a nucleus as it changes from an excited to ground energy state.
• Half-Life: (t1/2) The time required for ½ the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay.
• Decay Series: A series of radioactive nuclides produced by successive radioactive decay until a stable nuclide is formed.
• Parent Nuclide: The heaviest nuclide of each decay series.
• Daughter Nuclides: The nuclides produced by the decay of the parent nuclides.
• Artificial Transmutations: Transmutations of nuclei with charged and uncharged particles.
• Transuranium Elements: Elements with > 92 protons in their nuclei
• Phosphorescent: Glow-in-the-dark
• Isobars: Nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic numbers.
• Iso- (Prefix): Something the same and something different.

Chapter 21, Section 3 Vocabulary

• Film Badges use exposure of film to measure the approximate radiation exposure of people working with radiation.
• Geiger-Müller Counters detect radiation by counting electric pulses carried by gas ionized by radiation.
• Scintillation Counters convert scintillating light to an electric signal for detecting radiation.
• Radioactive Dating: The process by which the approximate age of an object is determined based on the amount of certain radioactive nuclides present. Radioactive Tracer: Radioactive atoms that are incorporated into substances so that movement of the substances can be followed by radiation detectors. Nuclear Waste: Unusable end materials that contain radioisotopes.
• Section 4

Chapter 21, Section 4 Vocabulary

• Nuclear Fission: When a very heavy nucleus splits into more stable nuclei of intermediate mass.
• Nuclear Fusion: When low-mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus.
• Chain Reaction: A reaction where the material that starts the reaction is also 1 of the products and can start another reaction.
• Critical Mass: The minimum amount of nuclide that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction.
• Nuclear Reactors: Use controlled-fission chain reactions to produce energy and radioactive nuclides.
• Nuclear Power Plants: Use energy as heat from nuclear reactions to produce electrical energy.
• Shielding: Radiation-absorbing material used to decrease exposure to radiation, especially gamma rays, from nuclear reactors.
• Control Rods: Neutron-absorbing rods that help control the reaction by limiting the number of free neutrons. Moderator: Slows down fast neutrons produced by fission.
• Nuclear Fusion
• Naturally occurring; not controlled by people
• Requires a lot of energy
• Nuclear Fission
• Manmade
• Releases 3+ neutrons and causes a chain reaction of fission

Chapter 5, Section 1 Vocabulary

• Periodic Law describes physical and chemical properties of the elements being periodic functions of their atomic numbers
• Periodic Table arranges elements in order of their atomic numbers so that elements with similar properties fall in the same column or group
• Periodicity is the tendency to recur at regular intervals
• J.W. Dobereiner grouped elements into 3 groups based on chemical properties
• Dimitri Mendeleev structured the periodic table based on properties and atomic mass and predicted elements, scandium, germanium, and gallium
• Henry Moseley structured the periodic table by atomic numbers

Chapter 5, Section 2 Keypoints

    - Alkali Metals - Group 1
    - Alkaline Earth Metals - Group 2
    - Transition Metals - Groups 3-12
    - Halogens - Group 17
    - Noble Gases - Group 18
    - Inner Transition Metals - f-block elements

• Valence Electrons - Alkali Metals have 1 valence electron. - Alkaline Earth Metals have 2 valence electrons. - Most Transition Metals have 2 valence electrons. - Groups 6 + 11 have 1 valence electron. - Groups 13-18 have the same number of valence electrons as the 2nd digit of the group number.

Chapter 5, Section 3 Vocab

• Atomic Radius- equals ½ the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
• Ion- describes an atom or group of bonded atoms that has a positive or negative charge
• Ionization- signifies a process that results in the formation of an ion
• Ionization Energy- notes energy required to remove 1 electron from a neutral atom (IE)
• Electron Affinity- describes the energy change that occurs when an electron is acquired by a neutral atom
• Cation- signifies a positive ion
• Anion- signifies a negative ion
• Valence Electrons- characterizes electrons available to be lost, gained, or shared in the formation of chemical compounds
• Electronegativity characterizes a measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons from another atom in the compound
• Isoelectronic describes when an electron configuration matches with noble gases Ionization
• Endothermic

Chapter 6, Section 1: Vocabulary

• Chemical Bond: A mutual electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms together
• Ionic Bonding: Chemical bonding that comes from the electrical attraction between cations and anions; transfer of electrons
• Covalent Bonding: Chemical bonding that results from the sharing of electron pairs between 2 atoms
• Nonpolar Covalent Bond: A covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms, making a balanced distribution of electrical charge
• Polar: Bonds that have an uneven distribution of charge
• Polar Covalent Bond: A covalent bond with an unequal attraction for the shared electrons that makes the bonded atoms.

Chapter 6, Section 2 - Vocab

• Coordinate Covalent Bond- 1 atom contributes both electrons in a bond
• Molecule- neutral group of atoms that are held together by covalent bonds
• Diatomic Molecule- a molecule containing only 2 atoms (BrINCIHOF)
• Molecular Compound- a chemical compound whose simplest units are molecules
• Chemical Formula- indicates the relative number of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using atomic symbols and numerical subscripts
• Molecular Formula- shows the types and numbers combined in a single molecule of a molecular compound
• Bond Length- the average distance between 2 bonded atoms
• Bond Energy- energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms
• Electron-Dot Notation- an electron-configuration notation in which only the valence electrons of an atom of a particular element are shown, indicated by dots placed around the element's symbol
• Lone/Unshared Pair- a pair of electrons that isn't involved in bonding and that belong exclusively to 1 atom
• Lewis Dot Structures- formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei, inner-shell electrons and dot-pairs between 2 atomic symbols represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots adjacent to 1 atomic symbol represent unshared pairs
• Structural Formula- indicates the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds but not the unshared pairs of the atoms in a molecule
• Single Bond- a covalent bond in which 1 pair of electrons is shared between 2 atoms
• Double Bond- a covalent bond in which 2 pairs of electrons are shared between 2 atoms
• Triple Bond- a covalent bond in which 3 pairs of electrons are shared between 2 atoms
• Resonance- refers to bonding in molecules/ions that can't be correctly represented by a single Lewis Dot Structure.
• Allotropes- same element bonded to itself in different ways
• Section 3 VOCAB

Chapter 6, Section 3: Vocabulary

• Ionic Compound- describes a compound composed of positive and negative ions combined so that the numbers of positive and negative charges are equal
• Formula Unit- signifies the simplest collection of atoms from which an ionic compound's formula can be written
• Lattice Energy defines the energy released when 1 mole of an ionic crystalline compound is formed from gaseous ions
• Polyatomic Ion signifies a charged group of covalently bonded atoms
• Delocalized/Sea of Electrons- describes electrons that don't belong to any 1 atom but move freely about the metal's network of empty atomic orbitals Metallic Bonding- defines chemical bonding that results from the attraction between metal atoms and the surrounding sea of electrons

Chapter 6, Section 5: Vocabulary

• VSEPR- describes the Valence-Shell, Electron-Pair Repulsion
• VSEPR Theory states that repulsion between valence-level electrons surrounding an atom causes electron sets to be oriented as far apart as possible
• Hybridization defines mixing 2 or more atomic orbitals of similar energies on the same atom to produce new hybrid atomic orbitals of equal energies
• Hybrid Orbitals describes orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of 2 or more orbitals on the same atom
• Intermolecular Forces defines forces of attraction between molecules
• Dipole constitutes equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance
• Dipole-Dipole Forces defines forces of attraction between polar molecules
• Hydrogen Bonding defines the intermolecular force in which a Hydrogen atom that's bonded to a highly electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule
• London Dispersion Forces are the intermolecular attractions resulting from constant motion of electrons and creation of instantaneous dipoles

Chapter 7, Section 1: Vocabulary

• Hydrocarbons: molecular compounds composed solely of Cs and Hs
• Monatomic Ions: ions formed from a single atom
• Binary Compounds: compounds that are composed of two elements
• Nomenclature: a naming system
• Oxyanions: are polyatomic ions that contain oxygen
• Binary Acids: Acids that consist of 2 elements
• Oxyacids: Acids that contain H, O, a nonmetal
• Salt: an ionic compound composed of a cation and the anion from an acid
• Hydrates: water molecule(s) chemically bonded to the ionic compound
• Hygroscopic: easily absorbent of water molecules from the air
• Deliquescent: very hygroscopic; pulls moisture from the air
• Anhydrous: all the water has been removed from a substance

Chapter 7, Section 2 and onwards

• Assigning oxidation numbers/states to atoms in a compound or ion Rules:
  1. Atoms in a pure element number is 0 (Ex. Na - 0)
  2. The more electronegative element in a binary molecular compound is assigned the oxidation number equal to the negative charge it would have as an anion. The less electronegative element is assigned the oxidation number equal to the positive charge it would have as a cation. (Ex. As2S5 - +5, -2)
  3. F has -1 in all compounds. (Ex. CF4 - +4, -1)
  4. O has -2 in all compounds except for peroxides where it has -1.(Ex. SO2 - +4, -2)
  5. H is usually +1 and -1 with metals (Ex. H2O - +1,-2, CaH2 - +2, -1)
  6. Sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is equal to 0 (Ex. CH4 - -4, +1
  7. Sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to its charge (Ex. SO42 - +6, -2
  8. A monatomic ion has an oxidation number equal to the charge of the ion (Ex. Mg+2 - +2_Cl₂- - -1 Section 3 Vocab
• Molecular Mass- the mass of a molecule
• Formula Mass- the sum of the average atomic masses of all atoms represented in its formula
• Percentage Composition- percentage by mass of each element in a compound Section 4 Empirical Formula- that consists of elements in a compound with subscripts showing smallest whole-number mole ratio.

Steps 1. Assume a 100g sample. 2. Convert those masses to moles. 3. Divide mole amounts by the smallest mole quantity. 4. Use these values as your formula's subscripts.

• Molecular Formula Steps
  1. Find the molar mass of the empirical formula.
  2. Divide the given molar mass.
  3. Multiply each subscript in the formula by multiple quantities.

Chapter 8, Section 1 Vocab

• Chemical Reaction: The process by which 1 or more substances are changed into 1 or more different substances.
• Chemical Equation: Represents, with symbols and formulas, the identities and relative molecular or molar amounts of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
• Precipitate: A solid that is produced as a result of a chemical reaction in solution and that separates from the solution
• Word Equation: An equation in which the reactants and products in a chemical reaction are represented by words
• Formula Equation: Represents the reactants and products of a chemical reaction by their symbols or formulas
• Reversible Reaction: A chemical reaction in which the products reform the original reactants

Chapter 8, Section 2 Vocabulary

• Synthesis Reaction- 2 or more substances combine to form a new compound.
• Decomposition Reaction- a single compound that undergoes a reaction that produces 2 or more simpler substances
• Electrolysis- the decomposition of a substance by an electric current
• Single-Displacement Reaction- 1 element replaces a similar element in a compound
• Double-Displacement Reaction- the ions of 2 compounds exchange places in an aqueous solution to form 2 new compounds
• Spector Ions- ions that remain in a solution as aqueous ions
• Combustion Reaction- a substance combines with oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of light and heat

Chapter 9, Section 1

• Stoichiometry: the study of quantities of materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions
• Composition Stoichiometry: deals with the mass relationships of elements in compounds
• Reaction Stoichiometry: involves mass relationships between reactants and products in a chemical reaction
• Mole Ratio- a conversion factor that relates the amount in moles of any 2 substances involved in a chemical reactio

Chapter 9, Section 3

• Limiting Reactant- the reactant that limits the amount of the other reactant that can combine and the amount of product that can form in a chemical reaction
• Excess Reactant- the substance that is not used up completely in a reaction
• Theoretical Yield- the max amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant
• Actual Yield- the measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction
• Percentage Yield- the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, multiplied by 100

Chapter 10, Kinetic-Molecular Theory

• Ideal Gas- hypothetically perfectly fits all assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory
• Elastic Collision- no net loss total kinetic energy
• Diffusion- spontaneous mixing of two substance particles caused by their random motion
• Effusion- process by which gas particles pass through a tiny opening into a vacuum
• Real Gas- does not behave with the assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory
• Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
• Gases consist of large numbers of tiny particles far apart to their size.
• Collisions between gas particles and between particles and container walls are elastic collisions.
• Gas particles are continuous, rabid, random motion.
• There are no forces of attraction between gas particles.
• Temperature of a gas depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles of the gas.
• Gas Properties
• Indefinite Shape and Volume
• Fluidity
• Low Density
• Compressibility
• Diffusion and Effusion

Chapter 10, Section 2 Liquids Vocab

• Fluid-a substance that can flow and therefore take the shape of its container.
• Surface Tension-a force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquid's surface together, thereby decreasing surface area to be the smallest possible size
• Cohesion-alike molecules are attracted to one another
• Capillary Action-spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube
• Meniscus-curved surface of a liquid in a container
• Viscosity-resistance to flow
• Vaporization-process by which liquid or a solid changes to a gas
• Evaporation-the process by which particles escape from the surface of a nonboiling liquid and enter the gas state
• Freezing/Solidification-physical change of liquid is removed as heat
• Liquid Properties
• Definite Shape and Indefinite volume
• Fluidity
• Relatively high density
• Relative Incompressibility
• Surface Tension
• Capillary Action
• Viscosity
• Volatility

Chapter 10, Section 3 Solids Vocabulary

• Crystalline Solids- solids that consistent of crystals
• Crystal- substance in which the particles are arranged in an order
• Geometric repeating patter
• Amorphous solid- solids where atoms are arranged randomly
• Melting- physical changes of solid to a liquid by addition of energy
• Melting point- temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid
• Super cooled liquids- liquids at temperatures in which they appear to be solids
• Crystal structure- 3D arrangement of the particle of a crystal
• Unit cell- smallest portion of crystal lattice that shows 3D pattern
• Substitutional alloy- metal atoms replaced by atoms of smaller alloy
• Interstitial alloy-in test iced and closest packed metal structure are occupied by small atoms
• Kinetic-molecules Theory of solid
• Particles are fixed

Chapter 10, Section 4: Vocabulary

• Phase- any uniform system
• Condensation- process by which gases that change to a liquid
• Vapor- gas in contact with it it of solid state
• Equilibrium- dynamic condition in which the two opposing changes at the closed rate
• Equilibrium is the pressure of a vapor in equilibrium with its constant liquid
• Boiling with in the liquid at the surface
• Boiling point- temperature at which liquid atmosphere
• Molar enthalpy- amount necessary to vaporize liquids
• Freezing pot temperature
• Point-temperature at pressure is solid the melting point of its solid from the volume point is sold
• Point-diagram graphs and pressure by the faces which contains a condition in which substance exist can reveal system changes
• Triple point indicates equal process pressure
• Critical point- indicates temperature that cannot exist in a liquid state
• Crticial pressure pressure at which a substance can exist at the criticical temperature
• The two equal opposing changes at a close equilibrium atmosphere
• Eqilibrium determined by the size of of inter molecular forces in

Chapter 10. continued

• Boiling- lower pressure, shot time longer time and in a avoid it would boil in meditald because there is zero am pressure
• Leach teller icles states when placed under strain it will undergo to relieve that strain and if you just consumer it it if you take with please that

Chapter 10, Section 5: Vocabulary

Sea Level: 1 atm or 101,300 Pa, 20-25°C or 293°K

Water

• Stratification- no mixing layers
• Water exist in all three phases simultaneously when under the right conditions
• Properties of water are determined by it structure by structure, by its bent shape.
• The molar of water is an important factor
• Small the water can still play a unique role in chemical biological systems
• Seawater: Density

Factors

temperature

• As the temperature decrease density increases.
• As the salinity increases density increases the increase

Specific Heat

The amount of energy required to change of a substance 1C Q = S * M+ Change in T Q energy S specific heat temperature

Explore matter, mass, and volume. Learn about elements, compounds, and their properties. Understand physical and chemical changes and their impact on substances.