Chapter 9: Steel Construction
76 Questions
0 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

Why is steel stronger but less brittle than cast iron?

  • Because steel is a pure metal without any alloying elements
  • Due to the higher carbon content in steel
  • Because cast iron is a type of steel with specific properties
  • As a result of the lower carbon content in steel (correct)

    • What is a common method to protect steel from rust?

  • Exposing to direct sunlight
  • Submerging in water
  • Coating with zinc and aluminum (correct)
  • Spraying with vinegar

    • How does the addition of molybdenum affect steel during the alloying process?

  • Reduces ductility of steel
  • Increases carbon content
  • Decreases the strength of steel
  • Increases resistance to abrasion (correct)

    • In what way can steel be shaped due to its ductility?

    <p>By rolling into various shapes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of steel is commonly used for floor and roof decking?

    <p>Cold Rolled Steel (CRS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does temperature change have on steel?

    <p>It can lead to deterioration and failure over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What elements are commonly added to steel during the alloying process to increase strength?

    <p>Molybdenum, Vanadium, and Manganese</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary metal alloyed in steel along with carbon?

    <p>Iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is steel relatively expensive compared to other materials?

    <p>Its strength and other qualities allow it to be used in smaller quantities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does steel differ from cast iron in terms of carbon content?

    <p>Cast iron has higher carbon content than steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to know the amount of expansion of steel components?

    <p>To avoid lateral constraints weakening, bowing, or buckling steel components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor in determining whether an unrestrained steel beam can expand significantly?

    <p>The support system used with the beam</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are individual steel members that are rigidly welded or bolted into a large structural system better able to resist failure?

    <p>Because they can resist failure better than simply supported members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic of steel is most significant to the fire service at elevated temperatures?

    <p>Strength deterioration at elevated temperatures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the loss of steel strength due to increased temperature not a sudden occurrence?

    <p>Because the temperature increase affects steel gradually</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is steel considered a good conductor of heat?

    <p>Because it is a heavy material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common way to protect steel from the heat of a fire in fire-resistive buildings?

    <p>Encasing in brick or ordinary concrete</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens if steel components are unable to push their lateral constraints?

    <p>They weaken, bow, or buckle and fail</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the usual outcome when steel is exposed to high enough heat for a prolonged period?

    <p>It loses its strength gradually</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are mass and heat resistance ratings important considerations for steel used in fire-resistive buildings?

    <p>To resist failure and maintain integrity under high heat conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of applying fireproofing materials like spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRM) to steel columns?

    <p>To enhance fire resistance of the steel columns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to ensure that the surface to which spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRM) are applied is clean?

    <p>To ensure good adhesion of the fireproofing material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of materials have not been used in spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRMs) since the 1970s?

    <p>Asbestos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does gypsum act as a fire-insulating material?

    <p>By turning water content into steam and absorbing heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of intumescent coatings when applied to steel structures?

    <p>To expand and protect against fire by charring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what type of buildings are gabled rigid frames commonly used?

    <p>Industrial buildings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components in steel trusses are at risk of collapse?

    <p>Slender components susceptible to buckling under load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why steel components that are unable to push their lateral constraints may weaken, bow, or buckle?

    <p>The heating of steel not occurring uniformly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are individual steel members that are rigidly welded or bolted into a large structural system better able to resist failure?

    <p>They can resist lateral constraints more effectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the deterioration of steel strength at elevated temperatures depend on?

    <p>The mass and load supported by the steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does unprotected steel with less mass require less heat to reach the failure temperature?

    <p>It is a better conductor of heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method used in older buildings to protect the steel framework from high temperatures during a fire?

    <p>Encasing the framework in brick or ordinary concrete</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it essential for steel used in fire-resistive buildings to meet minimum heat resistance ratings?

    <p>To protect the structural integrity in case of a fire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the mass of steel members influence their ability to reach failure temperature?

    <p>Lower mass requires less heat to reach failure temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it crucial for an unrestrained steel beam to have a support system?

    <p>To prevent lateral constraints that could lead to failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most significant characteristic of steel at elevated temperatures according to the text?

    <p>Strength loss due to increased temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does adding an insulating material protect steel from high temperatures in a fire?

    <p>By reducing the rate at which heat transfers to the steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between steel and cast iron in terms of carbon content?

    <p>Carbon content in steel is less than three tenths of one percent, while cast iron has three to four percent carbon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the addition of molybdenum, vanadium, and manganese affect steel during the alloying process?

    <p>They alter the composition of the material and increase specific attributes such as strength, toughness, and resistance to abrasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property of steel allows it to be shaped by rolling?

    <p>Ductility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method can be used to protect steel from rust when exposed to air and moisture?

    <p>Painting, coating with zinc and aluminum, or adding alloy elements that resist rust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Cold Rolled Steel (CRS)?

    <p>CRS is used for members with a thin cross-section like floor and roof decking and wall studs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of intumescent coatings when applied to steel structures?

    <p>To protect the steel by foaming and expanding when exposed to heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fireproofing material is most commonly used for protecting steel?

    <p>Low-density mineral fiber materials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using intumescent coatings over mastic coatings for steel protection?

    <p>Ability to foam and expand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does gypsum function as a fire-insulating material?

    <p>By utilizing its water content to absorb heat and act as an insulator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of membrane ceilings in steel-frame buildings?

    <p>To conceal building utilities like electrical wiring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are gabled rigid frames used in one-story industrial buildings?

    <p>To increase the interior clear space with inclined top members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do steel arches support roofs on buildings?

    <p>By spanning large distances economically</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are connections crucial in steel-frame buildings?

    <p>To transfer loads and provide structural rigidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor affecting the resistance to buckling in steel columns?

    <p>The slenderness ratio of the column compared to its shape and area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do open-web joists contribute to floor design in steel-frame buildings?

    <p>By supporting lightweight concrete decks with corrugated steel decking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following properties make steel stronger but less brittle than cast iron?

    <p>High ductility and low carbon content</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason steel must be protected from rust when exposed to air and moisture?

    <p>To avoid deterioration due to rusting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the addition of elements like molybdenum, vanadium, and manganese affect steel during the alloying process?

    <p>It alters composition and increases abrasion resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What allows steel to be shaped by rolling into various forms for construction applications?

    <p>Ductility compared to cast iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is Cold Rolled Steel (CRS) commonly used for floor and roof decking?

    <p>Suitable for thin cross-section members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect can expansion and contraction of steel due to temperature changes have over time?

    <p>Cause deterioration and material failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does steel require protection from air and moisture to prevent rusting?

    <p>To avoid material weakening over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of intumescent coatings when applied to steel structures?

    <p>To char, foam, and expand when heated to protect the steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it crucial for an unrestrained steel beam to have a support system?

    <p>To prevent the steel beam from buckling under load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do light-gauge steel joists differ from open-web joists in their applications?

    <p>Light-gauge steel joists are produced from cold-rolled steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of adding gypsum board with additives in steel-frame buildings?

    <p>Enhanced fire resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are mass and heat resistance ratings important considerations for steel used in fire-resistive buildings?

    <p>To ensure structural stability in case of fire incidents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do gusset plates affect steel connections in frame structures?

    <p>They increase the steel mass at connection points</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of magnesium oxychloride in cementitious materials used for fire insulation?

    <p>To improve fire resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to know the expansion characteristics of steel components?

    <p>To avoid failure that can occur due to lateral constraints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor affecting the speed of failure in steel components exposed to fire?

    <p>The load supported by the steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are individual steel members welded or bolted into a large system more resistant to failure?

    <p>They are better supported than standalone members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of steel makes it susceptible to losing strength at elevated temperatures?

    <p>Its conductivity of heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for adding insulating material to steel components during a fire?

    <p>To reduce the chances of steel failure due to high temperatures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does steel's density contribute to its behavior in a fire incident?

    <p>It requires less heat for lighter steel components to fail</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is an unrestrained steel beam more likely to fail compared to one with proper support?

    <p>It expands significantly when heated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property of steel is crucial for its behavior when subjected to high temperatures?

    <p>Its ability to conduct heat effectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it essential for steel used in fire-resistive buildings to meet minimum heat resistance ratings?

    <p>To ensure structural integrity and safety during a fire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are connections crucial in ensuring the stability of steel-frame buildings?

    <p>To prevent failures and maintain structural stability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Fire Resistance of Steel Columns

    • A steel column encased in 3 inches (75 mm) of concrete with a siliaceous aggregate has a fire resistance of four hours
    • Insulating materials can be applied by spraying, in a coating, or in sheets, or as low-weight concrete
    • Spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRM) are efficient and inexpensive, and can be made of mineral fiber or expanded aggregate coatings such as vermiculite and perlite
    • The degree of fire resistance provided by SFRMs depends on the material and thickness of the application

    Insulating Materials for Steel Protection

    • Types of SFRMs include low-density mineral fiber materials, high-density SFRMs that use magnesium oxychloride, and cementitious materials
    • Gypsum can be used as an insulating material, and its value arises from the water that is chemically bound in the gypsum
    • The water content in gypsum enhances its performance as a fire-insulating material by absorbing heat through calcination

    Intumescent and Mastic Coatings

    • Intumescent materials undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to heat, charring, foaming, and expanding to protect the steel
    • Intumescent coatings are applied as paint with an applied thickness of 0.03 to 0.4 inches (0.75 to 10 mm)
    • Mastic coatings function in a similar manner to intumescent coatings, but are based on more complex organic materials

    Membrane Ceilings

    • A membrane ceiling consists of a ceiling material suspended from the supports for the floor or ceiling above
    • The ceiling material acts as a thermal barrier to protect the steel that supports the floor or ceiling above

    Fire-Rated Assemblies

    • Fire-rated membrane floor and ceiling assemblies are listed by testing laboratories as a total assembly
    • Any penetrations in the building's structure must be provided for in the testing, and deviation from the laboratory specifications will affect the fire rating of the assembly

    Steel-Framed Structures

    • Steel is used to construct a structural framework that supports the floors, roof, and exterior walls
    • Steel structural shapes can be used to construct a frame of columns, beams, and girders
    • Steel can also be used in heavy or lightweight trusses to support roofs and floors

    Design of Connections in Steel-Frame Buildings

    • The design of connections in steel-frame buildings is important for transferring loads and providing structural rigidity

    • Connections determine the rigidity of the basic structure, which is necessary to resist wind load and other lateral forces### Fire Resistance of Steel Columns

    • A steel column encased in 3 inches (75 mm) of concrete with a siliaceous aggregate has a fire resistance of four hours

    • Structural designers prefer to use lighter-weight materials for protection of steel

    • Insulating materials can be applied by spraying, in a coating, or in sheets, or as low-weight concrete

    Insulating Materials

    • Spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRMs) are efficient and inexpensive
    • Common SFRMs include mineral fiber or expanded aggregate coatings such as vermiculite and perlite
    • The degree of fire resistance provided depends on the material and thickness of application
    • Installation procedures must be followed for SFRMs to be effective

    Types of SFRMs

    • Low-density mineral fiber materials are relatively soft and can be easily dislodged from steel
    • More durable mineral fiber products with densities greater than 20 lb/ft3 (320 kg/m3) can endure conditions of limited weather exposure and higher humidity
    • High-density SFRMs that use magnesium oxychloride have densities ranging from 40 to 80 lb/ft3 (640 to 1,300 kg/m3)
    • Asbestos has not been used in SFRMs since the 1970s

    Cementitious Materials

    • Cementitious materials have densities ranging from 15 to 50 lb/ft3 (240 to 800 kg/m3)
    • They are produced in various formulations with ingredients such as Portland cement, gypsum, perlite, and vermiculite
    • Some manufacturers add magnesium oxychloride, oxysulfate, calcium aluminate, phosphate, or ammonium sulfate

    Gypsum as an Insulating Material

    • Gypsum can be used as an insulating material in the form of flat boards or a plaster
    • Gypsum board consists of a core of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives sandwiched between two paper faces
    • The value of gypsum as an insulating material arises from the water that is chemically bound in the gypsum
    • This water content enhances gypsum's performance as a fire-insulating material

    Calcination Process

    • Calcination is the process of driving free and chemically bound water out of gypsum
    • It also describes chemical and physical changes to the gypsum component itself

    Intumescent and Mastic Coatings

    • Intumescent materials undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to heat
    • An intumescent coating will char, foam, and expand when heated, protecting the steel
    • Mastic coatings function in a similar manner to intumescent coatings but are based on more complex organic materials

    Membrane Ceilings

    • A membrane ceiling consists of a ceiling material suspended from the supports for the floor or ceiling above
    • The most common method is to use mineral tiles in a steel framework suspended by wires
    • The ceiling material acts as a thermal barrier to protect the steel that supports the floor or ceiling above

    Steel-Framed Structures

    • Steel is used to construct a structural framework that supports the floors, roof, and exterior walls
    • Steel structural shapes can be used to construct a frame of columns, beams, and girders
    • Steel can also be used in heavy or lightweight trusses to support roofs and floors

    Design of Connections in Steel-Frame Buildings

    • The design of connections in steel-frame buildings is important for transferring loads and providing structural rigidity
    • Connections determine the rigidity of the basic structure, which is necessary to resist wind load and other lateral forces

    Steel Trusses

    • Steel trusses can be fabricated in a variety of shapes to meet specific applications
    • They are frequently used in three-dimensional space frames, in which case they are known as delta trusses

    Web Joists

    • Web joists are used for the support of floors or roof decks in buildings
    • They are made from two angles, two bars, or a T-shaped member for the top and bottom chords
    • Diagonal members can be made from flat bars or round bars, with the latter known as a bar joist

    Gabled Rigid Frames

    • Gabled rigid frames are used for the construction of one-story industrial buildings, farm buildings, and other applications
    • The inclined top members allow for an increase in interior clear space
    • The top of the rigid frame is known as the crown and the points where the inclined members intersect the vertical members are known as the knees

    Steel Arches

    • Steel arches are used to support roofs on buildings where large unobstructed floors are needed
    • They can be constructed to span distances in excess of 300 feet (100 m)

    Steel Suspension Systems

    • Steel rods and cables are sometimes used in suspension systems to support roofs
    • Suspension roof systems can provide large unobstructed areas similar to arches without the reduction in vertical clearance at the sides of a building

    Steel Columns

    • Types of steel columns can range from simple single-piece cylindrical pipes to complex tower assemblies
    • Steel columns can be disproportionately thin compared to their length due to the high compressive strength of steel

    Understanding Columns in Structural Support

    • A column's slenderness ratio is used to determine the safe load it can support without buckling
    • The higher the slenderness ratio, the more likely the column is to buckle
    • Columns should not have a slenderness ratio greater than 120 for structural support in buildings### Fire Resistance of Steel Columns
    • A steel column encased in 3 inches (75 mm) of concrete with a siliaceous aggregate has a fire resistance of four hours.
    • Insulating materials can be applied to protect steel columns and provide fire resistance.

    Insulating Materials

    • Insulating materials can be applied by spraying, in a coating, or in sheets, or as low-weight concrete.
    • Spray-applied fire-resistive materials (SFRMs) are efficient and inexpensive.
    • The most common SFRMs are mineral fiber or expanded aggregate coatings, such as vermiculite and perlite.
    • The degree of fire resistance provided depends on the material and the thickness of the application.

    Installation of SFRMs

    • Proper installation procedures must be followed for SFRMs to be effective.
    • The surface to which the SFRM is applied must be clean of oil, dirt, loose paint, and any other substance that would prevent good adhesion.
    • Hangers and supports must be installed before application of the SFRM.

    Types of SFRMs

    • Low-density mineral fiber materials are relatively soft and can be easily dislodged from the steel.
    • More durable mineral fiber products with densities greater than 20 lb/ft3 (320 kg/m3) can endure conditions of limited weather exposure and higher humidity.
    • High-density SFRMs that use magnesium oxychloride have densities ranging from 40 to 80 lb/ft3 (640 to 1,300 kg/m3).

    Cementitious Materials

    • Cementitious materials have densities ranging from 15 to 50 lb/ft3 (240 to 800 kg/m3).
    • Cementitious materials are produced in various formulations with ingredients such as Portland cement, gypsum, perlite, and vermiculite.

    Gypsum as an Insulating Material

    • Gypsum can be used as an insulating material in the form of flat boards or a plaster.
    • Gypsum board consists of a core of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives sandwiched between two paper faces.
    • Gypsum board is available as regular or type X, with type X containing additives to increase its fire resistance.

    Calcination Process

    • Calcination is the process of driving free and chemically bound water out of gypsum.
    • It also describes chemical and physical changes to the gypsum component itself.

    Intumescent and Mastic Coatings

    • Intumescent materials undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to the heat of a fire.
    • An intumescent coating will char, foam, and expand when heated, protecting the steel.
    • Intumescent coatings are applied as paint with an applied thickness of 0.03 to 0.4 inches (0.75 to 10 mm).

    Membrane Ceilings

    • A membrane ceiling consists of a ceiling material suspended from the supports for the floor or ceiling above.
    • The most common method is to use mineral tiles in a steel framework suspended by wires.
    • The ceiling material acts as a thermal barrier to protect the steel that supports the floor or ceiling above.

    Fire-rated Assemblies

    • Fire-rated membrane floor and ceiling assemblies are listed by the testing laboratories as a total assembly.
    • All the specific details of the assembly must be adhered to in its installation.

    Safety Measures for Penetrations

    • Any penetrations in the building's structure must be provided for in the testing.
    • Additional insulation may be necessary on the back of lighting fixtures.
    • Ventilation ducts may need to be equipped with fire dampers to prevent fire from penetrating through the opening.

    Steel-framed Structures

    • Steel is used to construct a structural framework that supports the floors, roof, and exterior walls.
    • Steel structural shapes can be used to construct a frame of columns, beams, and girders.
    • Steel can also be used in heavy or lightweight trusses to support roofs and floors.

    Design of Connections

    • The design of the connections in steel-frame buildings is important for transferring loads and providing structural rigidity.
    • Connections determine the rigidity of the basic structure, which is necessary to resist wind load and other lateral forces.

    Types of Steel-frame Buildings

    • Beam and girder frames can be classified as rigid, simple, or semi-rigid.
    • Beams and columns in steel-frame buildings are connected by bolting or welding.
    • Steel trusses provide a structural member that can carry loads across greater spans more economically than beams.

    Steel Trusses

    • Steel trusses can be fabricated in a variety of shapes to meet specific applications.
    • They are frequently used in three-dimensional space frames, in which case they are known as delta trusses.

    Web Joists

    • Web joists are used for the support of floors or roof decks in buildings.
    • They are made from two angles, two bars, or a T-shaped member for the top and bottom chords.
    • Diagonal members can be made from flat bars or round bars, with the latter known as a bar joist.

    Gabled Rigid Frames

    • Gabled rigid frames are used for the construction of one-story industrial buildings, farm buildings, and other applications.
    • The inclined top members allow for an increase in interior clear space.
    • The top of the rigid frame is known as the crown and the points where the inclined members intersect the vertical members are known as the knees.

    Steel Arches

    • Steel arches are used to support roofs on buildings where large unobstructed floors are needed.
    • They can be constructed to span distances in excess of 300 feet (100 m).
    • Steel arches can be designed as either girder arches or trussed arches.

    Steel Suspension Systems

    • Steel rods and cables are sometimes used in suspension systems to support roofs.
    • Suspension roof systems can provide large unobstructed areas similar to arches without the reduction in vertical clearance at the sides of a building.

    Steel Columns

    • Steel columns can range from simple single-piece cylindrical pipes to complex tower assemblies.
    • Steel columns can be disproportionately thin compared to their length due to the high compressive strength of steel.
    • Engineers must plan safeguards to prevent buckling or weakening from exposure to high temperatures.

    Understanding Columns in Structural Support

    • A column's slenderness ratio is used to determine the safe load it can support without buckling.
    • The slenderness ratio compares the unbraced length of a column to its cross-sectional shape and area.
    • The higher the slenderness ratio, the more likely the column is to buckle.
    • Columns should not have a slenderness ratio greater than 120 for structural support in buildings.

    Floor Systems

    • Open-web joists are a common floor design in steel-frame buildings.
    • Open-web joists are made of corrugated steel decking that supports lightweight concrete.
    • Steel beams and light-gauge steel joists are used for flooring when loads or spans are high.

    Code Modifications and Fire Resistance

    • Protected steel is one of the two common materials used in fire-resistive construction.
    • Building codes specify the degree of fire resistance required for various structural members.
    • Firefighters may encounter unprotected steel structural members in buildings classified as fire-resistive.

    Collapse of Steel Structures

    • Steel trusses that are constructed with slender components are at risk of collapse.
    • Slender components are more susceptible to buckling under load.
    • Weakness of steel structures in fire conditions:
      • Light-gauge steel sheeting used in floor systems and roofs has a large surface area compared to its mass, causing it to heat up quickly under fire conditions and potentially fail structurally.
      • Steel trusses supported on a bearing wall or beam can easily fail and collapse under fire conditions.

    Connection Types and Fire Resistance

    • Rigid connections used in beam and girder type of frames have a greater mass of steel at the point of connection, making them more resistant to fire damage compared to simple connections.
    • Gusset plates, used in steel connections, increase the steel mass at the connection and decrease the possibility of failure.
    • In gabled rigid-frame structures, the knee joint between the roof and the wall is the strongest part of the frame and the last part to fail due to its greater mass.

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Description

    Explore the basic properties and differences between steel and cast iron, focusing on their composition, strength, and other key characteristics. Learn about the advantages of using steel over cast iron in various applications.

    More Like This

    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser