112 Questions
Which of the following is the ultimate objective of intelligence analysis?
To develop timely inferences
What is the key factor that effective intelligence analysis depends on?
Cognitive capabilities
What are the desired end products of intelligence analysis?
Inferences specifying the activity of interest
What is the importance of understanding the cognitive challenges of intelligence analysis?
To develop critical thinking skills
Which system of thinking is quick, automatic, and relies on associations?
System 1
Based on the text, why do most people think the ball costs 10 cents?
Intuition or System 1
What is a weakness of System 1 thinking?
It depends on the quality and amount of experience
Based on the text, what is a strength of System 2 reasoning?
It is highly useful in novel situations and problems
What did Fischer and Spiker's model incorporate?
All of the above
What did researchers in the 1950s notice about the rational-choice model of decision making?
It failed to predict actual behavior
What is the first cognitive system proposed by the heuristic theory?
Intuition
What do the most recent versions of heuristic theory propose about the two cognitive systems?
They are a combination of quick and automatic processes and effortful and conscious processes
Who developed the first test of critical thinking skills?
Goodwin Watson and Edward Glaser
What did the American Philosophical Association attempt to do regarding critical thinking?
Develop a consensus definition
What did the review of literature reveal about different conceptions of critical thinking?
There were many different conceptions with only a modest degree of overlap
What is the authors' opinion on the empirical study of critical thinking?
There has been a lack of empirical study of critical thinking
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic that makes it more likely for System 2 to be engaged in critical thinking?
Certain information
What determines the specific response required to successfully end the process of critical thinking?
The purpose of the task
Which of the following is NOT a predisposing factor that influences the likelihood of using critical thinking skills?
Complex material
What is the relationship between System 1 and System 2 in the process of critical thinking?
Both systems are almost always used in conjunction
Which system is an automatic and uncontrolled process that cannot be consciously initiated or stopped?
System 1
Which system has the potential for controlling judgment, although it may not always utilize that potential?
System 2
Which system works to narrow possible action paths and is often highly effective when the task must be accomplished quickly and when the problem space is limited?
System 1
Which system can provide multiple potential solutions and is more powerful when the problem space is novel or complex or when solutions must be innovative?
System 2
What is one of the reasons why individuals are reluctant to engage in critical thinking?
Increased anxiety
What does the model of critical thinking discussed in the text posit as the primary inhibitory sources?
Negative affective consequences
What can be a positive outcome of engaging in critical thinking?
Solving a difficult problem
What does the text suggest as a reason why the public seems disinclined to use critical thinking?
Intellectual laziness
What does critical thinking require more of compared to System 1 processing?
Increased effort
What does the text mention as a potential negative affective consequence of engaging in critical thinking?
Mental fatigue
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of effective intelligence analysis?
Reliance on cognitive capabilities
What is the role of critical thinking in intelligence analysis?
To develop timely inferences
Why is it important to understand the cognitive challenges of intelligence analysis?
To overcome limitations of cognitive capabilities
What is the dominant theory of decision making prior to the early 1970s?
The rational-choice model
What did researchers in the 1950s notice about the rational-choice model of decision making?
It failed to predict actual behavior
What does the heuristic theory propose about the cognitive processes used in making judgments?
Judgments are based on intuition or rules of thumb
What are the two cognitive systems proposed by the most recent versions of heuristic theory?
System 1 and System 2
According to the model of critical thinking discussed in the text, what is posited as the primary inhibitory source for individuals to engage in critical thinking?
Negative affective consequences
What are some potential negative affective consequences of engaging in critical thinking?
Mental fatigue, decreased self-esteem, increased anxiety
Based on the text, what is a potential positive outcome of engaging in critical thinking?
Positive affect
Which system is an automatic and uncontrolled process that cannot be consciously initiated or stopped?
System 1
Which system has the potential for controlling judgment, although it may not always utilize that potential?
System 2
What are the two characteristics of the situation that must be present to elicit critical thinking?
Substantive information and sufficient time
What determines the specific response required to successfully end the process of critical thinking?
System 2
What is the primary function of System 2 in the process of critical thinking?
To endorse and adjust the judgments of System 1
Which of the following is a weakness of System 2 reasoning?
It is slow and effortful
What are the similarities between critical thinking and System 2?
Effortful, controlled, deliberate, purposeful, and conscious
What is a potential negative affective consequence of engaging in critical thinking?
Increased frustration and mental fatigue
Which factors influence the likelihood of a person using critical thinking skills?
Both predisposing factors and moderating variables
What determines the quality of a solution in critical thinking?
The interaction between System 1 and System 2
Which system is used to solve a particular task in critical thinking?
Both System 1 and System 2
What is the role of critical thinking in understanding an intent statement?
Critical thinking may or may not be used to understand an intent statement
What is the relationship between critical thinking and other psychological constructs?
There is little empirical study on the relationship between critical thinking and other psychological constructs.
What is the primary focus of cognitive ergonomics or cognitive engineering?
Developing systems and training to support cognitive work.
What is the current state of empirical study on critical thinking and its relationship to other individual difference dimensions?
The lack of empirical study has resulted in divergent concepts of critical thinking.
What is the purpose of the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal?
To identify people with superior critical thinking aptitudes.
True or false: Effective intelligence analysis relies heavily on the cognitive capabilities of the human analyst?
True
True or false: Critical thinking skills play a crucial role in intelligence analysis?
True
True or false: The ultimate objective of intelligence analysis is to develop timely inferences that can be acted upon with confidence?
True
True or false: Fischer and Spiker developed a model that is specific enough to be empirically tested
True
True or false: The rational-choice model of decision making accurately predicts actual behavior
False
True or false: The heuristic theory proposes that all judgments are made intuitively
False
True or false: The heuristic theory suggests that two cognitive systems, intuition and reasoning, are used to make judgments
True
True or false: The ball costs 10 cents.
False
True or false: System 2 reasoning is slow and effortful.
True
True or false: System 1 thinking is dependent on the quality and amount of experience an individual possesses.
True
True or false: System 2 reasoning can be utilized concurrently with other tasks.
False
True or false: Critical thinking was first conceived in the early 1940s by two psychologists, Goodwin Watson and Edward Glaser.
True
True or false: The American Philosophical Association attempted to develop a consensus definition of critical thinking based on the responses of 46 experts.
True
True or false: The concept of critical thinking can be adequately addressed by a simple verbal definition.
False
True or false: Critical thinking has been extensively studied in its relationship to other psychological constructs such as intelligence, working memory, and reasoning.
False
True or false: According to the model of critical thinking discussed in the text, negative affective consequences associated with critical thinking are the primary inhibitory sources for individuals to engage in it?
True
True or false: System 1 judgments provide input to critical thinking skills.
True
True or false: Engaging in critical thinking can result in mental fatigue, increased effort, increased anxiety, cognitive dissonance, and decreased self-esteem?
True
True or false: Positive affect can be experienced as a result of a positive outcome that is a direct result of critical thinking?
True
True or false: System 2 has the potential for controlling judgment, although it may not always utilize that potential.
True
True or false: Critical thinking skills are more powerful than System 1 when the problem space is novel or complex.
True
True or false: Critical thinking skills have the meta-cognitive capability to monitor the progress of their own processing.
True
True or false: Critical thinking is an end in itself.
False
True or false: Predisposing factors strongly affect a person's use of critical thinking skills.
True
True or false: Moderating variables influence whether one executes a particular critical thinking skill.
False
True or false: Both System 1 and System 2 are almost always used in conjunction to produce a solution in critical thinking.
True
True or false: System 1 always produces different judgments than System 2.
False
True or false: System 2 reasoning is slow and effortful.
True
True or false: System 2 reasoning can be utilized concurrently with other tasks.
False
True or false: Positive affect can be experienced as a result of a positive outcome that is a direct result of critical thinking.
True
True or false: Fischer and Spiker's model of critical thinking incorporates ideas from leading thinkers in philosophy and education?
True
True or false: The rational-choice model of decision making accurately predicts actual behavior?
False
True or false: The heuristic theory proposes that people use heuristics, as opposed to rational weighing of factors, to make judgments?
True
True or false: System 1 thinking is effortful, conscious, and deliberately controlled?
False
True or false: Effective intelligence analysis consists of integrating collected information and then developing and testing hypotheses based on that information through successive iterations of additional data collection, evaluation, collation, integration, and inductive reasoning.
True
True or false: Intelligence analysis is highly dependent on the cognitive capabilities, specifically the critical thinking skills, of the human analyst.
True
True or false: The desired end products of intelligence analysis are inferences that specify the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the activity of interest and lead to appropriate actions.
True
True or false: Training in and application of critical thinking can help overcome the cognitive challenges of intelligence analysis.
True
True or false: Critical thinking skills have received extensive empirical study and have been found to be strongly correlated with other psychological constructs such as intelligence and reasoning?
False
True or false: The American Philosophical Association was successful in developing a consensus definition of critical thinking based on the responses of 46 experts?
True
True or false: The lack of empirical study of critical thinking has led to a unified view of the construct among theorists?
False
True or false: The concept of critical thinking can be adequately defined by a simple verbal definition?
False
True or false: System 1 is a conscious and controlled process that can be initiated or stopped?
False
True or false: Critical thinking is more effective than System 1 when the problem space is limited?
False
True or false: Critical thinking skills have the meta-cognitive capability to monitor their own processing?
True
True or false: Critical thinking is always engaged when the motivation to think critically exceeds a threshold value?
False
True or false: Critical thinking is an end in itself?
False
True or false: The application of critical thinking skills driven by System 2 always produces the best solution to a task?
False
True or false: Encouraging the exclusive use of critical thinking denies the power and effectiveness of System 1?
True
True or false: Both System 1 and System 2 are almost always used in conjunction to produce a solution in critical thinking?
True
True or false: Individuals are generally willing to engage in critical thinking.
False
True or false: Negative affective consequences are the primary inhibitory sources for individuals to engage in critical thinking.
True
True or false: Critical thinking requires less effort than System 1 processing.
False
True or false: Critical thinking has been extensively studied in its relationship to other psychological constructs such as intelligence, working memory, and reasoning.
True
True or false: The ball costs 10 cents because most people think so.
True
True or false: System 2 has the potential for controlling judgment in critical thinking.
True
Study Notes
Objectives and Characteristics of Intelligence Analysis
- The ultimate objective of intelligence analysis is to develop timely inferences that can be acted upon with confidence.
- Effective intelligence analysis depends on the cognitive capabilities of the human analyst.
- The desired end products of intelligence analysis are inferences that specify the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the activity of interest and lead to appropriate actions.
Cognitive Systems and Critical Thinking
- There are two cognitive systems: System 1 (quick, automatic, and relies on associations) and System 2 (slow, effortful, and consciously controlled).
- System 1 is an automatic and uncontrolled process that cannot be consciously initiated or stopped.
- System 2 has the potential for controlling judgment, although it may not always utilize that potential.
- Critical thinking is a process that involves the deliberate use of System 2 to overcome the limitations of System 1.
Heuristics and Decision Making
- The heuristic theory proposes that people use heuristics, as opposed to rational weighing of factors, to make judgments.
- The rational-choice model of decision making was dominant prior to the early 1970s, but researchers in the 1950s noticed that it did not accurately predict actual behavior.
- Fischer and Spiker's model of critical thinking incorporates ideas from leading thinkers in philosophy and education.
Critical Thinking and Intelligence Analysis
- Critical thinking skills play a crucial role in intelligence analysis.
- The role of critical thinking in understanding an intent statement is to provide a systematic and structured approach to identifying and analyzing the cues and indicators that suggest an adversary's intentions.
- Critical thinking skills can help overcome the cognitive challenges of intelligence analysis.
Factors Influencing Critical Thinking
- Predisposing factors, such as motivation and cognitive ability, influence the likelihood of a person using critical thinking skills.
- Moderating variables, such as context and task demands, influence whether one executes a particular critical thinking skill.
- The quality of a solution in critical thinking depends on the critical thinking skills used, the context, and the task demands.
Measurement and Assessment of Critical Thinking
- The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal is a test of critical thinking skills.
- The American Philosophical Association attempted to develop a consensus definition of critical thinking based on the responses of 46 experts.
Challenges and Limitations of Critical Thinking
- One of the reasons why individuals are reluctant to engage in critical thinking is the potential negative affective consequences, such as mental fatigue, increased effort, increased anxiety, cognitive dissonance, and decreased self-esteem.
- Critical thinking requires more effort and motivation compared to System 1 processing.
- The lack of empirical study of critical thinking has led to a lack of understanding of its relationship to other psychological constructs.
Test your understanding of critical thinking and engagement of System 2 with this quiz. Explore the factors that make System 2 more likely to be engaged and how it relates to conflicting, uncertain, and complex information. Discover how critical thinking serves specific objectives and the required responses for different purposes.
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